Citrus Fruit (eBook)

FRONT COVER 1
CITRUS FRUIT 4
COPYRIGHT PAGE 5
CONTENTS 6
PREFACE 14
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 18
Chapter 1 Introduction 20
I. Citrus Fruit Production and Prospects 20
II. Postharvest Overview 25
III. Conclusion 29
References 29
Chapter 2 Commercial Fresh Citrus Cultivars and Producing Countries 32
I. Citrus Cultivars for Fresh Fruit Market 32
A. Sweet Orange 32
B. Mandarin 37
C. Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfadyen) 41
D. Pummelo or Shaddock (C. grandis or C. maxima) 42
E. Hybrids of Pummelo and Grapefruit 43
F. Lemon (Citrus limon) 43
G. Acid Lime 46
H. Sweet Lime (Citrus limettioides Tanaka) 47
I. Citron (Citrus medica Lin.) 47
J. Calamondin (Citrus madurensis Loureiro) 48
K. Natsudaidai (Citrus natsudaidai Hayata) 48
L. Hassaku (Citrus hassaku Tanaka) 49
M. Kumquat (Fortunella spp.) 49
N. Bael (Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa.) 49
II. Countries, Varieties Grown, and Harvesting Seasons 50
A. Northern Hemisphere 50
B. Southern Hemisphere 74
References 82
Chapter 3 Postharvest Losses 86
I. Mandarins 88
A. 'Nagpur' Mandarin 88
B. 'Coorg' Mandarin 89
C. 'Khasi' Mandarin 90
II. Acid Lime 93
III. Sweet Orange and Grapefruit 94
IV. Measures to Reduce Losses 96
References 96
Chapter 4 Preharvest Factors Affecting Fruit Quality and Postharvest Life 98
I. Orchard Health 99
A. Diseases That Affect Fruit Quality in the Field 99
B. Insect-Pests and Mites 101
II. Tree Nutrition and Cultivation Practices 106
III. Preharvest Sprays 108
A. Auxins 109
B. Gibberellins 110
C. Other Chemicals 113
D. Ethephon and Other Chemicals for Fruit Color Improvement 114
E. Fungicides 115
IV. Climatic Factors 116
References 116
Chapter 5 Fruit Morphology, Anatomy, and Physiology 122
I. Fruit Morphology 122
A. Fruit Characteristics 123
II. Fruit Anatomy 125
III. Fruit Physiology 128
A. Respiratory Activity 128
B. Biochemistry of Respiration 131
C. Transpiration 132
D. Role of Ethylene 134
E. Color Development and Regreening 136
F. Fruit Abscission 137
G. Fruit Hormonal Balance 137
References 140
Chapter 6 Fruit Biochemistry 144
I. Carbohydrates 146
A. Monosaccharides 146
B. Oligosaccharides 146
C. Sugar Derivatives 148
D. Changes in Sugars during Fruit Growth and Storage 150
E. Polysaccharides 151
F. Changes in Polysaccharides during Fruit Growth and Maturation 153
II. Organic Acids 154
A. Changes in Organic Acids During Fruit Growth and Maturation 155
B. Physiological Role of Organic Acids 156
III. Nitrogenous Compounds 157
A. Amino Acids 157
B. Amines 160
C. Proteins 161
D. Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids 162
IV. Enzymes 163
A. Polysaccharides and Pectic Enzyme Complex 164
B. Sugar Metabolizing Enzymes 165
C. Other Important Enzymes 167
V. Lipids, Waxes, and Other Related Compounds 169
A. Cutin 171
B. Waxes 171
C. Terpenoids and Steroids 172
VI. Pigments 173
VII. Phenols, Flavonoids, and Limonoids 176
A. Phenols 176
B. Flavonoids 180
C. Limonoids 182
VIII. Vitamins 185
IX. Inorganic Constituents 187
X. Citrus Oils and Volatile Flavoring Compounds 189
A. Tangerine and Mandarin 191
B. Orange 192
C. Grapefruit and Pummelo 194
D. Lemon 195
E. Lime 197
F. Other Citrus and Related Fruits 197
References 197
Chapter 7 Growth, Maturity, Grade Standards, and Physico-Mechanical Characteristics of Fruit 210
I. Citrus Fruit and Climate 210
II. Growth and Development 212
A. Mineral Nutrition and Fruit Growth 215
B. Fruit Maturation 216
III. Indices of Maturity, Fruit Grades, and Standards 217
A. Indices of Maturity (Internal Standards) 217
B. Fruit Grades (External Standards) 221
IV. Physical and Mechanical Characteristics 225
References 228
Chapter 8 Harvesting 234
I. Methods of Harvesting 234
A. Manual Harvesting 234
B. Mechanical Harvesting 241
References 245
Chapter 9 Preparation for Fresh Fruit Market 248
I. Degreening 249
A. Degreening Conditions 250
B. Ethephon, Ethylene, and Other Compounds Enhancing Rind Color 252
C. Degreening Rooms 258
D. Changes in Physico-Chemical Attributes of Degreened Fruit 260
E. Respiration 261
F. Fruit Color and Mass Loss in Degreened Fruit 261
G. Decay and Disorders in Degreened Fruit 262
H. Color Improvement with Other Methods 264
II. Packinghouse Operations 264
A. Mechanized Operations 264
B. Commodity-specific Operations 276
C. Care During Handling of Fruit on Packing Line 280
D. Manual versus Mechanical Operations 280
E. Packinghouse Environment, Worker Conditions, and Safety Rules 281
F. Sanitation 281
G. Wastewater Disposal 282
H. Economics and Energy Needs of Packinghouse Operations 282
I. Conventional Operations in Developing Countries and Recent Developments 283
J. Some Tips for Export of Citrus Fruits 284
III. Postharvest Treatments 285
A. Curing 285
B. Disinfection and Cleaning 285
C. Surface Coatings 286
D. Plant-Growth Regulators 294
E. Other Chemicals 296
References 297
Chapter 10 Packaging 306
I. Containers and Packaging Materials 307
A. Bulk Handling Containers 307
B. Containers for Transport/Shipment 308
C. Commodity-specific Containers 311
D. Filling and Packing of Boxes 315
E. Transportworthiness and Strength of the Boxes 317
F. Stacking and Handling 319
G. Packaging for Retail Market 319
II. Film-wrapping and Seal-packaging 320
A. Seal-packaging 320
B. Commodity-specific Response to Seal-Packaging 321
C. Advantages of Seal-packaging 324
III. Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 326
A. Plastic Films and Their Characteristics 329
B. Citrus Fruit Responses to Modified Atmosphere Packaging 330
References 332
Chapter 11 Precooling and Refrigeration 338
I. Temperature, RH, and Vapor pressure Deficit 339
II. Mechanical Refrigeration 340
A. Refrigeration Equipment and Cooling Plant 341
B. Construction of Cold Storage Rooms 342
C. Heat Load and Thermal Properties 344
III. Precooling 345
A. Effect of Precooling on Various Citrus Fruits 346
B. Packaging Containers and Their Alignment during Precooling 347
References 350
Chapter 12 Storage Systems and Response of Citrus Fruits 352
I. Storage Systems 353
A. Refrigerated Storage 354
B. Storage at Suboptimal or Chilling Temperatures 364
C. Controlled Atmosphere (CA) 368
D. Hypobaric Storage 375
E. Evaporative Cool Storage and Other Natural Systems 375
F. Storage Under Ambient Conditions 380
II. Removal of Ethylene from Storage Area 381
III. Changes in Fruit Composition during Storage 381
A. Total Soluble Solids, Sugars, and Acidity 382
B. Volatiles 384
C. Enzymes 384
D. Ascorbic Acid 384
E. Pectic Substances 385
F. Lipid Fraction 385
References 385
Chapter 13 Transportation 394
I. Road and Vehicle Condition 395
II. Surface Transport 397
A. Trailers/Trucks (Refrigerated and Non-refrigerated) 399
B. TOFC 400
C. Rail Cars 401
D. Reefer Containers (Refrigerated Containers) 401
E. Cargo Holds of Ships 404
III. Conditioning and Quarantine Treatments during Transportation 405
IV. Air Shipments 406
References 407
Chapter 14 Marketing and Distribution 410
I. Marketing Systems and Distribution 411
A. Japan 411
B. Taiwan 412
C. China 412
D. South Asia 414
E. Europe 416
F. Israel 420
G. South Africa 420
H. United States 420
I. Australia 421
References 421
Chapter 15 Irradiation 422
I. Ionizing Radiation 422
A. Irradiation Process 423
B. Possible Benefits of Irradiation in Citrus 424
C. Physiological, Physico-chemical, and Organoleptic Properties of Fruit 428
D. Phytotoxic Effect of Irradiation on Peel and Flesh 432
References 434
Chapter 16 Postharvest Diseases and Their Management 436
I. Postharvest Diseases 436
A. Decay from Field Infection 437
B. Decay from Postharvest Infection 439
C. Physiological Effects of Postharvest Infection 441
II. Pesticides, Residues, and Tolerances 442
A. Disinfectants and Fungicides 442
B. Postharvest Fungicide Treatments 446
C. Strategies against Decay and Resistance Development 451
D. Residues and Tolerances 451
III. Organic Postharvest Management 454
A. GRAS Chemicals 456
B. Bioagents (Microbial Antagonists) 457
C. Botanicals and Other Organic Compounds 458
D. Physical Methods 459
References 463
Chapter 17 Physiological Disorders and Their Management 470
I. Disorders Caused by Postharvest Factors 471
A. Chilling Injury 471
B. Oleocellosis (Rind-Oil Spot) 473
C. Rind Staining 474
D. Kohansho 474
E. Peteca 474
F. Red Blotch or Red-Colored Lesions 475
G. Stylar-End Breakdown 475
H. Stem-End Rind Breakdown (SERB) 475
II. Disorders Caused by Preharvest Factors 476
A. Freeze Injury 476
B. Granulation 476
C. Fruit Splitting or Cracking 478
D. Puffiness 478
E. Superficial Rind Pitting (SRP) 479
F. Creasing 479
G. Sunburn/Sunscald 479
References 480
Chapter 18 Postharvest Treatments for Insect Control 484
I. Fly-free-zone Protocol 485
II. Fruit-fly Disinfestation 486
A. Chemical Control 486
B. Physical Treatments 486
References 491
Chapter 19 Fruit Quality Control, Evaluation, and Analysis 494
I. Fruit Quality 494
A. Physical Parameters 495
B. Chemical Parameters 495
C. Physiological Parameters 496
II. Analysis of Quality Attributes and Instruments 496
A. Physical Attributes 496
B. Chemical Attributes 503
C. Physiological Attributes 505
D. Sensory Attributes 509
E. Fruit Sampling 510
F. Instruments Useful in Storage Atmosphere Management 510
III. Rapid Non-destructive Quality Evaluation and Application 513
A. External Quality Evaluation 513
B. Internal Quality Evaluation 513
IV. Quality Control and Assurance Systems 514
References 517
Chapter 20 Nutritive and Medicinal Value of Citrus Fruits 520
I. Nutritive Value of Citrus Fruits in the Human Diet 520
A. Calorific Value 521
B. Minerals 523
C. Dietary Fiber and Pectin 524
II. Therapeutic/Medicinal Value 524
A. Vitamins 526
B. Role of Citrus Fruits in Reducing Risk of Human Diseases 528
III. Nutritive and Medicinal Value of Bael (Aegle marmelos) 531
References 531
Chapter 21 Biotechnological Applications in Fresh Citrus Fruit 534
References 537
Chapter 22 World Fresh Citrus Trade and Quarantine Issues 540
I. Exports, Imports, and World Trade 541
A. Fresh Citrus Consumption Trend 541
B. Major Exporting Countries 542
C. Major Importing Countries 546
D. Fresh Citrus Trade Prospects 548
E. Barriers in Citrus Trade 549
II. Quarantine Issues 550
A. Quarantine Regulations 551
References 552
ANNEXURE I 554
ANNEXURE II 556
GLOSSARY 558
A 558
B 559
C 559
D 559
E 559
G 560
H 560
I 560
M 560
N 560
P 560
R 560
S 561
T 561
U 561
V 561
INDEX 562
A 562
B 563
C 563
D 565
E 565
F 566
G 567
H 568
I 568
J 569
K 569
L 569
M 569
N 570
O 571
P 571
Q 573
R 573
S 574
T 575
U 576
V 576
W 577
X 577
Z 577
COLOR PLATES 578