Surface Production Operations, Volume 1 (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Surface Production Operations 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 6
Acknowledgments to the Third Edition 20
About the Book 22
Preface to the Third Edition 24
Chapter 1 The Production Facility 26
Introduction 26
Making the Equipment Work 40
Facility Types 43
Chapter 2 Process Selection 49
Introduction 49
Controlling the Process 49
Operation of a Control Valve 49
Pressure Control 52
Level Control 54
Temperature Control 54
Flow Control 54
Basic System Configuration 55
Wellhead and Manifold 55
Separation 55
Initial Separation Pressure 55
Stage Separation 57
Selection of Stages 59
Fields with Different Flowing Tubing Pressures 59
Determining Separator Operating Pressures 61
Two-Phase vs. Three-Phase Separators 62
Process Flowsheet 62
Oil Treating and Storage 62
Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) 65
Pumps 69
Water Treating 69
Compressors 69
Gas Dehydration 73
Well Testing 75
Gas Lift 78
Offshore Platform Considerations 81
Overview 81
Modular Construction 82
Equipment Arrangement 82
Chapter 3 Basic Principles 86
Introduction 86
Basic Oil-Field Chemistry 86
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 86
Atomic and Molecular Weights 87
Hydrocarbon Nomenclature 88
Paraffin Series: (CnH2n+2) 89
Paraffin Compounds 89
Acids and Bases 90
Fluid Analysis 90
Physical Properties 90
Molecular Weight and Apparent Molecular Weight 93
Example 3-1: Molecular weight calculation 94
Example 3-2: Determine the apparent molecular weight of dry air, which is a gas mixture consisting of nitrogen, oxygen, and small amounts of Argon 94
Gas Specific Gravity and Density 95
Example 3-3: Calculate the specific gravity of a natural gas with the following composition 96
Nonideal Gas Equations of State 98
Reduced Properties 105
Example 3-4: Calculate the pseudo-critical temperature and pressure for the following natural gas stream composition 106
Example 3-5: Calculate the volume of 1 lb mole of the natural gas stream given in the previous example at 120°F and 1500 psia 107
Example 3-6: A sour natural gas has the following composition. Determine the compressibility factor for the gas at 100°F and 1000 psia 113
Liquid Density and Specific Gravity 114
Viscosity 117
Gas Viscosity 118
Liquid Viscosity 119
Oil-Water Mixture Viscosity 120
Phase Behavior 122
System Components 123
Single-Component Systems 124
Multicomponent Systems 126
Lean Gas Systems 128
Rich Gas Systems 128
Retrograde Systems 129
Application of Phase Envelopes 130
Black Oil Reservoir 131
Phase Diagram Characteristics 131
Field Characteristics 131
Laboratory Analysis 132
Volatile Oil Reservoir 132
Phase Diagram Characteristics 132
Field Characteristics 133
Laboratory Analysis 134
Retrograde Gas Reservoir 134
Phase Diagram Characteristics 134
Field Characteristics 135
Laboratory Analysis 135
Wet Gas Reservoir 135
Phase Diagram Characteristics 135
Field Characteristics 136
Dry Gas Reservoir 137
Phase Diagram Characteristics 137
Information Required for Design 137
Flash Calculations 138
Characterizing the Flow Stream 155
Molecular Weight of Gas 155
Gas Flow Rate 155
Liquid Molecular Weight 157
Specific Gravity of Liquid 158
Liquid Flow Rate 159
The Flow Stream 160
Approximate Flash Calculations 161
Other Properties 162
Exercises 167
References 174
Chapter 4 Two-Phase Oil and Gas Separation 175
Introduction 175
Phase Equilibrium 176
Factors Affecting Separation 177
Functional Sections of a Gas-Liquid Separator 177
Inlet Diverter Section 179
Liquid Collection Section 179
Gravity Settling Section 179
Mist Extractor Section 179
Equipment Description 180
Horizontal Separators 180
Vertical Separators 181
Spherical Separators 182
Centrifugal Separators 184
Venturi Separators 185
Double-Barrel Horizontal Separators 186
Horizontal Separator with a “Boot” or “Water Pot” 187
Filter Separators 188
Scrubbers 189
Slug Catchers 190
Selection Considerations 190
Vessel Internals 194
Inlet Diverters 194
Wave Breakers 195
Defoaming Plates 196
Vortex Breaker 198
Stilling Well 198
Sand Jets and Drains 200
Mist Extractors 201
Introduction 201
Gravitational and Drag Forces Acting on a Droplet 201
Impingement-Type 202
Baffles 203
Wire-Mesh 206
Micro-Fiber 211
Other Configurations 212
Final Selection 212
Potential Operating Problems 215
Foamy Crude 215
Paraffin 217
Sand 217
Liquid Carryover 217
Gas Blowby 218
Liquid Slugs 219
Design Theory 220
Settling 220
Droplet Size 228
Retention Time 228
Liquid Re-entrainment 229
Separator Design 229
Horizontal Separators Sizing—Half Full 229
Gas Capacity Constraint 230
Liquid Capacity Constraint 234
Seam-to-Seam Length 236
Slenderness Ratio 237
Procedure for Sizing Horizontal Separators—Half Full 237
Horizontal Separators Sizing Other Than Half Full 238
Gas Capacity Constraint 239
Liquid Capacity Constraint 240
Vertical Separators’ Sizing 244
Gas Capacity Constraint 244
Liquid Capacity Constraint 247
Seam-to-Seam Length 249
Slenderness Ratio 251
Procedure for Sizing Vertical Separators 251
Examples 251
Example 4-1: Sizing a Vertical Separator (Field Units) 251
Example 4-2: Sizing a Vertical Separator (SI Units) 254
Example 4-3: Sizing a Horizontal Separator (Field Units) 257
Example 4-4: Sizing a Horizontal Separator (SI Units) 258
Nomenclature 259
Review Questions 261
Exercises 264
Bibliography 268
Chapter 5 Three-Phase Oil and Water Separation 269
Introduction 269
Equipment Description 271
Horizontal Separators 271
Derivation of Equation (5-1) 275
Free-Water Knockout 276
Flow Splitter 277
Horizontal Three-Phase Separator with a Liquid “Boot” 278
Vertical Separators 280
Selection Considerations 283
Vessel Internals 284
Coalescing Plates 285
Turbulent Flow Coalescers 285
Potential Operating Problems 286
Emulsions 286
Design Theory 286
Gas Separation 286
Oil–Water Settling 287
Water Droplet Size in Oil 287
Oil Droplet Size in Water 287
Retention Time 289
Separator Design 290
Horizontal Separator Sizing—Half-Full 290
Gas Capacity Constraint 290
Retention Time Constraint 291
Derivation of Equations (5-4a) and (5-4b) 292
Settling Water Droplets from Oil Phase 295
Derivation of Equations (5-5a) and (5-5b) 295
Derivation of Equation (5-7) 298
Separating Oil Droplets from Water Phase 299
Seam-to-Seam Length 299
Slenderness Ratio 300
Procedure for Sizing Three-Phase Horizontal Separators—Half-Full 300
Horizontal Separators Sizing Other Than Half-Full 303
Gas Capacity Constraint 303
Retention Time Constraint 304
Settling Equation Constraint 308
Vertical Separators’ Sizing 308
Gas Capacity Constraint 309
Settling Water Droplets from Oil Phase 309
Derivation of Equations (5-21a) and (5-21b) 310
Settling Oil from Water Phase 312
Retention Time Constraint 312
Derivation of Equations (5-24a) and (5-24b) 313
Seam-to-Seam Length 314
Slenderness Ratio 315
Procedure for Sizing Three-Phase Vertical Separators 316
Examples 319
Example 5-1: Sizing a vertical three-phase separator (field units) 319
Example 5-2: Sizing a vertical three-phase separator (SI units) 322
Example 5-3: Sizing a horizontal three-phase separator (field units) 324
Example 5-4: Sizing a horizontal three-phase separator (SI units) 327
Nomenclature 330
Review Questions 333
Exercises 335
Chapter 6 Mechanical Design of Pressure Vessels 341
Introduction 341
Design Considerations 342
Design Temperature 342
Design Pressure 342
Maximum Allowable Stress Values 344
Determining Wall Thickness 345
Corrosion Allowance 349
Inspection Procedures 352
Estimating Vessel Weights 354
Specification and Design of Pressure Vessels 356
Pressure Vessel Specifications 356
Shop Drawings 356
Nozzles 359
Vortex Breaker 359
Manways 364
Vessel Supports 364
Ladder and Platform 366
Pressure Relief Devices 367
Corrosion Protection 367
Example 6-1: Determining the weight of an FWKO vessel (field units) 367
Review Questions 371
Exercises 373
Reference 375
Chapter 7 Crude Oil Treating and Oil Desalting Systems 376
Introduction 376
Equipment Description 376
Free-Water Knockouts 376
Gunbarrel Tanks with Internal and External Gas Boots 377
Example 7-1: Determination of external water leg height 379
Horizontal Flow Treaters 384
Heaters 385
Indirect Fired Heaters 386
Direct Fired Heaters 387
Waste Heat Recovery 388
Heater Sizing 388
Heater-Treaters 388
Vertical Heater-Treaters 388
Coalescing Media 392
Horizontal Heater-Treaters 393
Electrostatic Heater-Treaters 402
Oil Dehydrators 407
Heater-Treater Sizing 408
Emulsion Treating Theory 408
Introduction 408
Emulsions 409
Differential Density 410
Size of Water Droplets 411
Viscosity 411
Interfacial Tension 411
Presence and Concentration of Emulsifying Agents 412
Water Salinity 412
Age of the Emulsion 412
Agitation 413
Emulsifying Agents 413
Demulsifiers 417
Bottle Test 418
Field Trial 419
Field Optimization 420
Changing the Demulsifier 420
Demulsifier Troubleshooting 420
Emulsion Treating Methods 421
General Considerations 421
Chemical Addition 422
Amount of Chemical 422
Bottle Test Considerations 423
Water Drop-Out Rate 423
Sludge 423
Interface 423
Water Turbidity 423
Oil Color 424
Centrifuge Results 424
Chemical Selection 424
Settling Tank or “Gunbarrel” 424
Vertical Heater-Treater 424
Horizontal Heater-Treater 425
Settling Time 425
Coalescence 426
Viscosity 427
Heat Effects 428
Electrostatic Coalescers 435
Water Droplet Size and Retention Time 437
Treater Equipment Sizing 438
General Considerations 438
Heat Input Required 438
Derivation of Equations (7-5a) and (7-5b) 439
Gravity Separation Considerations 440
Settling Equations 441
Horizontal Vessels 442
Derivation of Equations (7-8a) and (7-8b) 442
Vertical Vessels 443
Gunbarrels 444
Horizontal Flow Treaters 444
Derivation of Equations (7-10a) and (7-10b) and (7-11a) and (7-11b) 446
Retention Time Equations 447
Horizontal Vessels 447
Vertical Vessels 447
Gunbarrels 448
Horizontal Flow Treaters 448
Derivation of Equations (7-12a) and (7-12b) 449
Water Droplet Size 450
Design Procedure 453
General Design Procedure 453
Design Procedure for Vertical Heater-Treaters and Gunbarrels (Wash Tanks with Internal/External Gas Boot) 453
Design Procedure for Horizontal Heater-Treaters 454
Design Procedure for Horizontal-Flow Treaters 454
Examples 457
Example 7-2: Sizing a horizontal treater (field units) 457
Example 7-3: Sizing a horizontal treater (SI units) 459
Example 7-4: Sizing a vertical treater (field units) 461
Example 7-5: Sizing a vertical treater (SI units) 462
Practical Considerations 464
Gunbarrels with Internal/External Gas Boot 464
Heater-Treaters 465
Electrostatic Heater-Treaters 465
Oil Desalting Systems 465
Introduction 465
Equipment Description 466
Desalters 466
Mixing Equipment 466
Globe Valves 466
Spray Nozzles 467
Static Mixers 468
Process Description 469
Single-Stage Desalting 469
Two-Stage Desalting 470
Nomenclature 471
Review Questions 472
Exercises 476
Reference 481
Chapter 8 Crude Stabilization 482
Introduction 482
Basic Principles 483
Phase-Equilibrium Considerations 483
Flash Calculations 485
Process Schemes 485
Multi-Stage Separation 485
Oil Heater-Treaters 485
Liquid Hydrocarbon Stabilizer 486
Cold-Feed Stabilizer 489
Stabilizer with Reflux 491
Equipment Description 492
Stabilizer Tower 492
Trays and Packing 494
Trays 494
Packing 497
Trays or Packing 499
Stabilizer Reboiler 500
Stabilizer Cooler 501
Stabilizer Reflux System 501
Stabilizer Feed Cooler 502
Stabilizer-Heater 502
Stabilizer Design 502
Stabilizer As a Gas-Processing Plant 506
Chapter 9 Produced Water Treating Systems 507
Introduction 507
Disposal Standards 508
Offshore Operations 508
Onshore Operations 509
Characteristics of Produced Water 509
Dissolved Solids 509
Precipitated Solids (Scales) 510
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) 510
Calcium Sulfate (CaSO4) 510
Iron Sulfide (FeS2) 511
Barium and Strontium Sulfate (BaSO4 and SrSO4) 511
Scale Removal 511
Controlling Scale Using Chemical Inhibitors 512
Sand and Other Suspended Solids 512
Dissolved Gases 513
Oil in Water Emulsions 514
Dissolved Oil Concentrations 515
Dispersed Oil 516
Toxicants 519
Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials 521
Bacteria 522
System Description 524
Theory 525
Gravity Separation 526
Coalescence 527
Dispersion 528
Flotation 529
Filtration 532
Equipment Description and Sizing 533
Skim Tanks and Skim Vessels 533
Configurations 534
Vertical 534
Horizontal 535
Pressure Versus Atmospheric Vessels 536
Retention Time 536
Performance Considerations 537
Skimmer Sizing Equations 539
Horizontal Cylindrical Vessel: Half-Full 539
Derivation of Equation (9-7) 539
Horizontal Rectangular Cross-Section Skimmer 542
Derivation of Equation (9-12) 543
Derivation of Equation (9-13) 545
Vertical Cylindrical Skimmer 546
Derivation of Equation (9-15) 547
Derivation of Equation (9-17) 548
Coalescers 549
Plate Coalescers 549
Parallel Plate Interceptor (PPI) 551
Corrugated Plate Interceptor (CPI) 551
Cross-Flow Devices 555
Performance Considerations 557
Selection Criteria 559
Coalescer Sizing Equations 561
Derivation of Equation (9-18) 562
Derivation of Equation (9-19) 564
CPI Sizing 565
Cross-Flow Device Sizing 566
Example 9-1: Determining the dispersed oil content in the effluent water from a CPI plate separator 567
Oil/Water/Sediment Coalescing Separators 568
Oil/Water/Sediment Sizing 570
Performance Considerations 571
Skimmer/Coalescers 571
Matrix Type 572
Loose Media 572
Performance Considerations 573
Precipitators/Coalescing Filters 574
Free-Flow Turbulent Coalescers 576
Performance Considerations 580
Flotation Units 580
Dissolved Gas Units 581
Dispersed Gas Units 584
Hydraulic Induced Units 587
Mechanical Induced Units 588
Other Configurations 590
Sizing Dispersed Gas Units 591
Performance Considerations 593
Hydrocyclones 598
General Considerations 598
Operating Principles 598
Static Hydrocyclones 600
Dynamic Hydrocyclones 603
Selection Criteria and Application Guidelines 603
Sizing and Design 605
Disposal Piles 605
Disposal Pile Sizing 607
Derivation of Equation (9-26) 608
Derivation of Equation (9-27) 610
Skim Piles 610
Skim Pile Sizing 613
Derivation of Equation (9-28) 613
Drain Systems 614
Information Required for Design 615
Effluent Quality 615
Influent Water Quality 616
Produced Water 616
Soluble Oil 617
Deck Drainage 617
Equipment Selection Procedure 617
Equipment Specification 619
Skim Tank 619
SP Pack System 620
CPI Separator 620
Cross-Flow Devices 620
Flotation Cell 620
Disposal Pile 620
Example 9-2: Design the produced water treating system for the data given 620
Nomenclature 631
Review Questions 632
References 634
Chapter 10 Water Injection Systems 635
Introduction 635
Solids Removal Theory 637
Removal of Suspended Solids from Water 637
Gravity Settling 637
Flotation Units 640
Filtration 640
Inertial Impaction 640
Diffusional Interception 641
Direct Interception 642
Filter Types 643
Nonfixed-Pore Structure Media 643
Fixed-Pore Structure Media 644
Surface Media 645
Summary of Filter Types 645
Removal Ratings 646
Nominal Rating 646
Absolute Rating 647
Beta (ß) Rating System 648
Choosing the Proper Filter 649
Nature of Fluid 649
Flow Rate 650
Temperature 650
Pressure Drop 650
Surface Area 652
Void Volume 653
Degree of Filtration 654
Prefiltration 654
Coagulants and Flocculation 655
Measuring Water Compatibility 656
Solids Removal Equipment Description 657
Gravity Settling Tanks 661
Horizontal Cylindrical Gravity Settlers 664
Horizontal Rectangular Cross-Sectional Gravity Settlers 666
Vertical Cylindrical Gravity Settlers 668
Plate Coalescers 669
Hydrocyclones 669
Centrifuges 673
Flotation Units 673
Disposable Cartridge Filters 674
Backwashable Cartridge Filters 676
Granular Media Filters 677
Diatomaceous Earth Filters 685
Chemical Scavenging Equipment 688
Nomenclature 690
Appendix A: Definition of Key Water Treating Terms 692
Appendix B: Water Sampling Techniques 697
Appendix C: Oil Concentration Analysis Techniques 701
Glossary of Terms 707
Index 726