Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium(III) (eBook)

Cover 1
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 6
Preface 8
Contributors 12
Chapter 1 Introduction: A history of chromium studies (1955–1995) 14
INTRODUCTION 14
CHROMIUM(III) 15
THE GLUCOSE TOLERANCE FACTOR (GTF) STORY 15
The identification of GTF 15
Brewer’s yeast “GTF” 17
Biological activity assays 20
Porcine kidney powder “GTF” 21
Other questions regarding “GTF” 21
Conclusions 22
THE RACE TO SYNTHESIZE A MODEL OF “GTF” 22
THE CHROMIUM PICOLINATE (Cr(pic)3) STORY 23
Nutritional supplement? 23
Toxic effects? 25
Inorganic chemistry 25
PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES 26
Rat 26
Human 30
Other animals 33
LOW-MOLECULAR-WEIGHT CHROMIUM-BINDING SUBSTANCE (LMWCr) 34
Synthetic models 35
OTHER POTENTIAL CHROMIUM-CONTAINING BIOMOLECULES 35
DIABETES AND CHROMIUM/CHROMIUM TRANSPORT 35
Adult-onset diabetes and chromium 35
Other conditions resulting in increased urinary Cr loss 37
Chromium transport 37
CONCLUSION 39
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 41
REFERENCES 41
Part I. Chromium as a Nutrient and Nutritional Supplement 54
Chapter 2 Basis for dietary recommendations for chromium 56
INTRODUCTION 56
DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE VALUES FOR CHROMIUM BY AGE AND GENDER 57
BASIS FOR CONSIDERATION OF CHROMIUM AS AN ESSENTIAL NUTRIENT 58
DATA LIMITATIONS FOR ESTABLISHING AN EAR 58
REPORTED CHROMIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN FOODS 59
REPORTED CHROMIUM INTAKES OF EXCLUSIVELY BREAST-FED INFANTS 61
REPORTED CHROMIUM INTAKES FOR OLDER INFANTS, CHILDREN, AND ADOLESCENTS 61
REPORTED DIETARY CHROMIUM INTAKES OF ADULTS 62
REPORTED CHROMIUM INTAKES OF THE ELDERLY 62
REPORTED CHROMIUM INTAKES DURING PREGNANCY AND LACTATION 63
RESPONSES OF SUBJECTS TO CONTROLLED INTAKES OF CHROMIUM 63
EFFECTS OF VARIOUS DIETARY COMPONENTS ON CHROMIUM ABSORPTION AND EXCRETION 64
EFFECTS OF METABOLIC STATES ON CHROMIUM NEEDS 65
RESEARCH NEEDS 65
REFERENCES 65
Chapter 3 Multiple hypotheses for chromium(III) biochemistry: Why the essentiality of chromium(III) is still questioned 70
INTRODUCTION 70
DATA NOT CONSISTENT WITH CHROMIUM ESSENTIALITY 71
Total parenteral nutrition 71
Dietary deficiencies 72
Supplementation 72
THE CHROMIUM GLUCOSE TOLERANCE FACTOR 72
THE LMWCr-BINDING PROTEIN 73
Structural characterization of LMWCr 73
Functional characterization of LMWCr 75
RELATION OF CHROMIUM METABOLISM TO IRON METABOLISM 76
HORMESIS 77
CONCLUSIONS 78
REFERENCES 78
Chapter 4 Effects of chromium(III) as a nutritional supplement 84
INTRODUCTION 84
EFFECTS OF CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION ON HUMAN BODY COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL FUNCTIONS 85
Untrained Adults 85
Body composition and performance in athletes 86
Weight loss and maintenance 88
Compositional and Functional Effects of Cr(III) Supplementation in Older Adults 90
Cr(III): ANABOLIC OR CATABOLIC? 91
Chromium(III) SUPPLEMENTATION: NUTRITION OR PHARMACOLOGY 91
CONSENSUS ON Cr(III) SUPPLEMENTS FOR WEIGHT REDUCTION, BODY COMPOSITION CHANGE, AND STRENGTH GAIN 92
SOME RESOLUTION TO THE CONTROVERSY 95
CONCLUSION 95
REFERENCES 95
Chapter 5 Use of chromium as an animal feed supplement 98
INTRODUCTION 98
FACTORS RELATED TO Cr STATUS OF FARM LIVESTOCK 99
SWINE 101
Introduction 101
Metabolic effects 101
Chromium for weanling pigs 102
Chromium for growing pigs 104
Chromium for reproducing pigs 108
Summary for swine 112
CATTLE 112
Introduction 112
Metabolic effects 112
Chromium for young calves 113
Chromium for dairy cows 115
Summary for cattle 115
POULTRY 115
Introduction 115
Chromium for broilers (meat birds) 116
Chromium for laying hens 118
Summary 120
SHEEP 121
Introduction 121
Metabolic effects 121
Chromium for growing lambs 121
Summary 121
EQUINE 121
Introduction 121
Metabolic effects 122
Chromium for horses 122
SUMMARY 123
Qualitative responses 123
Quantitative responses 123
General conclusion 124
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 124
REFERENCES 124
Part II. Biochemical Role(s) for Chromium(III) 132
Chapter 6 The transport of chromium(III) in the body: Implications for function 134
ABSORPTION 134
TRANSPORTATION 136
Transferrin 136
Low-molecular-weight chromium-binding substance (chromodulin) 138
CHROMIUM TRANSPORT TO ORGANS 139
EXCRETION 143
CHROMIUM–TRANSFERRIN–APO-LMWCR (CHROMODULIN) TRANSPORT MODEL 144
DISCUSSION 146
REFERENCES 146
Chapter 7 Potential and purported roles for chromium in insulin signaling: The search for the holy grail 152
INTRODUCTION 152
INSULIN SIGNALING 152
LOW-MOLECULAR-WEIGHT CHROMIUM/CHROMODULIN 154
Synthetic models 162
DIRECT CHROMIUM BINDING TO INSULIN RECEPTOR 164
AKT 165
CHROMATE 166
CYTOKINES 167
INSULIN RECEPTOR NUMBER 168
CONCLUSION 168
ADDENDUM 168
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 169
REFERENCES 169
Part III. Chromium(III) as a Therapeutic Agent 174
Chapter 8 Clinical effect of chromium supplements on human health 176
INTRODUCTION 176
EFFECT OF CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION REPORTED FOR SPECIFIC POPULATIONS 180
Individuals with type 1 and 2 diabetes 180
Gestational diabetes 182
Steroid-induced diabetes 182
Individuals with the metabolic syndrome and impaired glucose tolerance 182
Individuals without diabetes 184
Meta-analysis of reported trials 185
CLINICAL EFFECT OF CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION MAY DEPEND ON PHENOTYPE 185
EFFECT OF CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION ON BODY WEIGHT AND COMPOSITION 186
EFFECT OF CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION ON SERUM LIPIDS 187
CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE RISK 187
CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION AND DEPRESSION 188
SUMMARY 189
REFERENCES 189
Chapter 9 Benefits of chromium(III) complexes in animal and human health 196
INTRODUCTION 196
CHROMIUM DEFICIENCY AND DISEASES 196
DIETARY SOURCES OF BENEFICIAL CHROMIUM 197
TRIVALENT CHROMIUM, ABSORPTION, AND BIOAVAILABILITY 197
CHROMIUM(III) AND GLUCOSE TOLERANCE FACTOR (GTF) 199
CHROMIUM(III), DIABETES, AND INSULIN RESPONSE 201
CHROMIUM(III) SUPPLEMENTATION IN LOWERING BLOOD PRESSURE, HYPERTENSION, AND CHOLESTEROL 204
TRIVALENT CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTATION, SYNDROME X, AND WEIGHT LOSS 210
DIETARY Cr(III) AND FREE RADICAL SCAVENGING ABILITY 213
SAFETY OF CHROMIUM(III) COMPLEXES 214
CONCLUSION 214
REFERENCES 215
Part IV. Toxicological Effects of Chromium(III) 220
Chapter 10 Evaluation of chromium(III) genotoxicity with cell culture and in vitro assays 222
REASONS FOR QUESTIONING Cr(III) SUPPLEMENT SAFETY 222
JUSTIFICATION FOR USING CELL CULTURE AND IN VITRO ASSAYS 224
STANDARD CELL CULTURE AND IN VITRO ASSAYS AND GUIDELINES FOR THEIR USE 224
THE AMES TEST 225
THE CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATION ASSAY 226
THE hprt ASSAY 226
THE IN VITRO MOUSE LYMPHOMA ASSAY 227
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF IN VITRO ASSAYS 227
RESULTS FOR CHROMIUM(III) NICOTINATE 227
RESULTS FOR CHROMIC CHLORIDE 228
RESULTS FOR OTHER Cr(III) SUPPLEMENTS 228
RESULTS FOR Cr(III) PICOLINATE 229
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 231
REFERENCES 232
Chapter 11 Redox chemistry and biological activities of chromium(III) complexes 238
INTRODUCTION 238
FORMATION AND ROLES OF STRONG OXIDANTS IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS 239
OXIDATION OF Cr(III) COMPLEXES UNDER PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 242
BIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF Cr(III) OXIDATION 247
Is Cr(III) an antioxidant or a pro-oxidant? 247
Damage to DNA and proteins 248
Interference with cell signaling 254
OXIDATIVE HYPOTHESIS OF Cr(III) BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY 256
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 259
REFERENCES 259
Chapter 12 Overview of chromium(III) toxicology 270
INTRODUCTION 270
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF Cr(III) AND QUESTIONS CONCERNED 271
TOXICOLOGICAL AND CARCINOGENETIC EFFECTS OF Cr(III) 272
GENOTOXIC AND MUTAGENETIC EFFECTS OF Cr(III) 272
EPIGENETIC EFFECTS OF Cr(III) 273
CONCLUSIONS 274
REFERENCES 274
Chapter 13 Summary: The clinical and nutritional importance of chromium – Still debated after 50 years of research 278
INTRODUCTION 278
CHROMIUM(III) AS A NUTRIENT 279
CHROMIUM AS A NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENT 281
BIOCHEMICAL ROLE(S) FOR Cr(III) 282
CHROMIUM(III) AS A THERAPEUTIC AGENT 284
TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF Cr(III) 286
CONCLUSION 287
REFERENCES 288
Index 290