Coal and Peat Fires: A Global Perspective (eBook)

Coal and Peat Fires: A Global Perspective 2
Captions for Front Cover Photos 3
Copyright 5
Dedication 6
Preface 8
Acknowledgments 10
Contents 12
List of Contributors 20
Chapter 1. Coal Formation and the Origin of Coal Fires 24
1.1. The Formation of Coal 25
Introduction 25
Geologic Distribution of Coal Seams 26
Coal Swamps 28
Cyclothems 28
Coalification 29
Coal Composition 33
1.2. Origin of Coal Fires 38
Introduction 38
Incidence of Coal Fires 39
Ignition and Propagation of Coal Fires 39
Control of Coal Fires 42
Conclusions 45
Acknowledgments 46
Important Terms 46
References 47
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 51
Chapter 2. Coal-Mining Techniques and Coal Fires 52
2.1. Brief History of Coal Mining 53
Introduction 53
Evolution of Coal Mining 53
Coal-Mining Techniques 54
Coal-Mining Machines 55
2.2. Underground Coal Mining 56
Underground Mining 56
Methods of Coal Mining 57
The Special Case of Anthracite Mining 59
Ventilation 59
2.3. Surface Coal Mining 60
Surface Mining 60
Contour Mining 60
Area Mining 61
Auger Mining 61
Mountain Top Removal 61
2.4. Coal Mining and Coal Fires 62
Discovery and Investigation 62
Monitoring 62
Mine Atmosphere 63
Abatement 64
Acknowledgments 65
Important Terms 66
References 67
WWWAddresses: Additional Reading 68
Chapter 3. Spontaneous Combustion and Coal Petrology 70
3.1. Spontaneous Combustion and Coal Petrology 71
Introduction 71
Maceral Composition of Coal 71
Inorganic Matter in Coal 73
Microlithotypes 77
Lithotypes 77
Coal Rank 78
Coal Petrology and Spontaneous Combustion 79
Important Terms 83
References 84
WWWAddresses: Additional Reading 85
Chapter 4. Coal and Ancient Man: Cremation at the Tschudi Burn, Chan Chan, Northern Peru 86
4.1. Coal and Ancient Man 87
Introduction 87
Coal in Peru 87
Chan Chan 88
Metallurgical Furnace or Crematorium 89
Temperature of the Tschudi Burn 89
Calcium in the Soil 90
Sulfur in the Soil 91
Fuel Ash Chemistry 91
Oxide and Trace Element Data 92
14C Date 97
Cremation in Society 97
Fuel for Cremation 98
Cremation at the Tschudi Burn 99
Discussion 100
References 101
WWWAddresses: Additional Reading 104
Chapter 5. Geotechnical and Environmental Problems: Coal and Spontaneous Combustion 106
5.1. Geotechnical and Environmental Problems 107
Introduction 107
Origin of Spontaneous Combustion 108
Spontaneous Combustion: Life and Human Health 108
Coal Seam and Colliery-Spoil Heap Fires 109
Control and Preventation of Spontaneous Combustion and Coal Fires 109
Examples of Spontaneous Combustion and Coal Fires 112
Conclusions 121
Acknowledgments 122
Important Terms 122
References 122
Chapter 6. The Effects of Global Coal Fires 124
6.1. The Global Catastrophe 125
Introduction 125
The Mining Hazard 126
Catastrophic Coal Fires 128
Discussion 132
Acknowledgments 133
Important Terms 133
References 133
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 136
Chapter 7. Environmental and Health Impacts of Coal Fires 138
7.1. Environmental and Health Impacts of Coal Fires 139
Introduction 139
Environmental Consequences 141
Health-Related Effects 144
Discussion 145
Important Terms 146
References 146
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 148
Chapter 8. Analysis of Coal-Mine-Fire Gas 150
8.1. Trace Gas Analyses 151
Introduction 151
Gas Collection 151
Sample Analyses 152
Methane System 152
CO/CO2 System 153
VOC System 153
Quality Control: Standards 155
Modifying 156
Important Terms 156
References 156
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 157
Chapter 9. Gas Vent Mineralization and Coal Combustion 158
9.1. The Origin of Gas Vent Minerals 159
Introduction 159
Mineral-Forming Processes 159
Isochemical Mineralization 159
Mass Transfer Mineralization 161
Discussion 165
9.2. Sample Collecting and Field Data 166
Introduction 166
Safety Precautions 166
GPS and Temperature Measurements 167
Mineral and Rock-Collecting Techniques 168
Gas-Collecting Techniques 170
In Situ Chemical Analyses 171
Discussion 173
Acknowledgments 174
Important Terms 174
References 174
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 175
Chapter 10. Sample Identification and Imaging of Gas-Vent Mineral Assemblages 178
10.1. Sample Identification and Imaging 179
Introduction 179
X-Ray Diffraction 180
Electron Microprobe 182
Short-Wave Infrared Spectroscopy 186
Other Analytical Methods 188
Comments 189
Acknowledgments 189
Important Terms 189
References 192
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 194
Chapter 11. Semivolatile Hydrocarbon Residues of Coal and Coal Tar 196
11.1. Source Identification 197
Source Signatures 197
Fossil Fuels 198
Carbonization 198
Lines of Evidence 200
11.2. Sample Preparation 201
Collection 201
Extraction 201
Cleanup 202
11.3. Sample Analysis 203
Introduction 203
Total Organic Carbon 203
Total Extractable Material 203
High-Resolution Hydrocarbon Scan 204
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 207
Saturated Hydrocarbons 211
Geochemical Biomarkers 214
11.4. Coal-Fire Residues 216
Semivolatile Hydrocarbons 216
Dominant Hydrocarbons 216
PAH Transformations 218
Saturated Hydrocarbon Residues 221
Biomarker Stability 224
Conclusions 228
Acknowledgments 228
Important Terms 228
References 230
Chapter 12. Magnetic Signatures of Rocks and Soils Affected by Burning Coal Seams 232
12.1. Magnetic Signatures 233
Introduction 233
Field Work 234
Magnetic Anomalies 235
Magnetic Properties 237
Discussion 238
Acknowledgments 239
Important Terms 239
References 239
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 241
Chapter 13. Historical Use of Airborne Thermal Infrared Imaging for Detecting and Studying Coal Fires 242
13.1. Airborne Thermal Infrared Imaging 243
Introduction 243
Thermal Infrared Imaging 243
Color Infrared Imaging 245
Early Use 245
Later Use 248
Depth Estimation 249
Discussion 249
Acknowledgments 250
Important Terms 250
References 250
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 252
Chapter 14. Remote Sensing of Coal Fires 254
14.1. Remote Sensing 255
Introduction 255
14.2. Principles of Remote Sensing 256
Electromagnetic Energy and Spectrum 256
Visible and Near-Infrared Regions 257
Shortwave and Thermal Infrared Regions 258
Microwave Region 260
14.3. Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors 262
Overview and Significance 262
14.4. Coal-Fire Parameter Extraction from Remote Sensing Images 265
Introduction 265
Crack-Density Mapping 265
Reflection-Aureole Mapping 265
Land-Cover (Coal Area) Mapping 266
Fire-Area Estimation 267
Fire-Depth Estimation 268
Subsidence Mapping 269
Greenhouse-Gas Emissions 270
14.5. Time Series Analysis and Integrated Interpretation in a GIS 271
Introduction 271
Important Terms 271
References 273
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 275
Chapter 15. The Policy Setting for Coal Fires: Indicators for Government Action 278
15.1. The Policy Setting for Coal Fires 279
Introduction 279
Phases in the Policy Cycle 280
Policy Innovation in the Nineteenth Century 282
Lessons for Coal Fires 287
Acknowledgments 287
Important Terms 288
References 288
Chapter 16. United States Bureau of Mines—Study and Control of Fires in Abandoned Minesand Waste Banks 290
16.1. United States Bureau of Mines 291
Introduction 291
Mine-Fire Control 291
16.2. Fire-Control Projects in Abandoned Mines and Waste Banks 294
Introduction 294
Eastern Bituminous Region 294
Western United States and Alaska 295
Anthracite Coalfields 296
16.3. Characteristics of Fires in Abandoned Coal Mines and Waste Banks 300
Introduction 300
Initiation of Coal-Mine Fires 300
Geologic and Mining Factors 302
Natural Barriers 303
Discontinuous Fire Propagation 304
16.4. Locating Abandoned Mine Fires 305
Introduction 305
Mine-Fire Diagnostics 305
Geophysical Methods 311
Temperature Monitoring 313
16.5. Controlling Abandoned Mine Fires 316
Introduction 316
Burnout Control 316
Water Injection 318
Foam Injection 320
Cryogenic Slurry Injection 320
Summary 322
Acknowledgments 322
Important Terms 323
References 325
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 327
Chapter 17. Smoldering Combustion Phenomena and Coal Fires 330
17.1. Smoldering and Coal Combustion 331
Introduction 331
Overall Characteristics 331
Structure of a Smoldering Front 334
Smoldering-Coal Fires 335
Smoldering Wildfires 336
Acknowledgments 337
Important Terms 337
References 337
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 338
Chapter 18. Burning and Water Suppression of Smoldering Coal Fires in Small-ScaleLaboratory Experiments 340
18.1. Burning and Suppression Experiments 341
Introduction 341
Suppression of Smoldering Coal Fires 341
Small-Scale Experimental Work 343
Conclusions 347
Acknowledgments 347
Important Terms 348
References 348
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 349
Chapter 19. Modern-Foam-Injection Technology for Extinguishing Coal Fires 350
19.1. Modern-Foam-Injection Technology 351
Introduction 351
New Method of Foam Generation 352
Experimental Fires 352
Fire Science 354
Compressed Foam 354
Quality Control 354
New Developments 354
What the Future Holds 355
The Grand Finale 355
Important Terms 355
References 355
WWW Addresses: Additional Reading 356
Author Index 358
Subject Index 366