Environmental Geochemistry: Site Characterization, Data Analysis and Case Histories (eBook)
350 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-08-055895-0 (ISBN)
* Comprehensive analysis providing background information on geochemistry in general through to specific investigations
* Provides practical insight through case study material
* Informs and updates students and practitioners on hot topics, latest trends and developments
This volume contains chapters spanning from the role of geochemistry in the environment in general to specific investigations on site characterization (sampling strategy, analytical procedures and problems). Specific articles deal with health problems related to environment pollution, waste disposal, data base management, and provide illustrations of specific case histories of site characterization and remediation of brownfield sites.* Comprehensive analysis providing background information ranging from geochemistry in general to specific investigations* Provides practical insight through case study material* Informs and updates students and practitioners on hot topics, latest trends and developments
Front Cover 1
Environmental Geochemistry 2
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Contributors 12
Preface 16
Chapter 1: Field Methods in Regional Geochemical Surveys 20
1. Introduction 20
2. Sampling Media 21
3. Sampling Density 23
4. Sampling Networks 24
5. Quality Assurance in Sampling 26
6. Sampling Procedures 26
7. Documentation of Field Data 29
8. Photography 29
9. Sample Archive 29
References 30
Chapter 2: Sampling Methods for Site Characterization 32
1. Introduction 33
2. Site Characterization 34
3. Basic Sampling Types 36
4. Some Further Sampling Considerations 40
5. Summary 45
References 45
Chapter 3: Contaminated Groundwater Sampling and Quality Control of Water Analyses 48
1. Introduction 50
2. Groundwater Sampling Objectives 50
3. Choosing the Right Portable Sampling Devices 51
4. Avoiding Cross-Contamination 56
5. Water-Level Measurements 56
6. Well Purging Techniques 57
7. On-Site Water-Quality Measurements 61
8. Preservation and Handling of Samples 64
9. Quality Assurance and Quality-Control Procedures 69
10. Data Validation 71
11. Health and Safety in Fieldwork 74
References 74
Chapter 4: The Collection of Drainage Samples for Environmental Analyses from Active Stream Channels 78
1. Introduction 79
2. Drainage Basins 80
3. Drainage Sampling 83
4. Sampling Strategy 85
5. Procedures 88
6. Discussion 103
7. Conclusions 109
Acknowledgments 109
References 109
Chapter 5: Data Conditioning of Environmental Geochemical Data: Quality Control Procedures Used in the British Geological Survey's Regional Geochemical Mapping Project 112
1. Introduction 113
2. Planning Quality Control—Quality Assurance 114
3. Raw Data Checking 120
4. Statistical Analyses and Plotting of Control Sample Data 123
5. Levelling Data 127
6. Discussion 133
Acknowledgments 109
References 109
Chapter 6: Gas Chromatographic Methods of Chemical Analysis of Organics and Their Quality Control 138
1. Introduction 139
2. Sample Preparation—Aqueous Samples 140
3. Sample Preparation—Soil Samples 141
4. Cleanup Techniques 143
5. Instrumental Analysis 145
6. Data Analysis 146
7. Quality Control 148
8. Internal QC 149
9. External Laboratory QC 151
References 151
Chapter 7: Evaluation of Geochemical Background at Regional and Local Scales by Fractal Filtering Technique: Case Studies in Selected Italian Areas 154
1. Introduction 155
2. Multifractal Interpolation and Fractal Concentration–Area (C–A) Method 156
3. Background/Baseline Geochemical Map Obtained by Fractal Filtering (S– A) Method 157
4. Pb and U Background Values for Campania Region Stream Sediments 159
5. Pb Background Values for the Volcanic Soils of the Metropolitan and Provincial Areas of Napoli 163
6. Conclusions 169
Acknowledgments 109
References 109
Chapter 8: Urban Geochemical Mapping 172
1. Introduction 173
2. Definition of Geochemical Background and Baseline at an Urban Scale 174
3. Planning Urban Geochemical Mapping 174
4. Sampling Protocols and Field Activities 176
5. Sample Preparation and Analyses 177
6. Geochemical Data Presentation 179
Acknowledgments 190
References 190
Chapter 9: Chemical Speciation to Assess Potentially Toxic Metals' (PTMs') Bioavailability and Geochemical Forms in Polluted Soils 194
1. Introduction 195
2. PTMs' Forms in Soil and Bioavailability 195
3. The Need of Speciation and Speciation Methods 198
4. Plant Bioavailability 199
5. Human Bioavailability 207
6. PTMs' Partitioning Between Soil Geochemical Phases 210
7. Applications of PTMs' Speciation for Risk and Remediation Assessment 220
8. Concluding Remarks 222
Acknowledgments 222
References 222
Chapter 10: Overview of Selected Soil Pore Water Extraction Methods for the Determination of Potentially Toxic Elements in Contaminated Soils: Operational and Technical Aspects 232
1. Introduction 233
2. Methods for Sampling Soil Pore Water 236
3. Description and Discussion of Selected Methods 241
4. Conclusions and Recommendations 260
References 262
Chapter 11: Sewage Sludge in Europe and in the UK: Environmental Impact and Improved Standards for Recycling and Recovery to Land 270
1. Wastewater and Sludge: Definitions and Treatment 271
2. Wastewater and Sludge Composition 274
3. The Legislative Debate and Regulative Tools in Europe and in the UK 279
4. Reuse and Disposal of Sewage Sludge in the UK 294
5. Encouraging the Recycling of Sludge 300
Acknowledgments 302
References 303
Chapter 12: Lead Isotopes as Monitors of Anthropogenic and Natural Sources Affecting the Surficial Environment 306
1. Introduction 307
2. Geologic Setting 310
3. Results 317
4. Discussion 325
5. Conclusions 331
Acknowledgments 109
References 109
Chapter 13: Environmental Impact of the Disposal of Solid By-Products from Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Processes 336
1. Introduction 337
2. MSW Incineration 338
3. Treatment of Flue Gas from MSW Incineration 342
4. Solid By-Products from MSW Incineration 345
5. Plasma Pyrolysis for Waste Treatment 348
6. Conclusions 349
Acknowledgments 350
References 350
Chapter 14: Innovative Responses to Challenges: Redevelopment of Cos Cob Brownfields Site, Connecticut, USA 352
1. Introduction 353
2. Introduction to Brownfields 353
3. The Challenges of Brownfields 354
4. Tools to Respond to Brownfields Challenges 356
5. Introduction to Case Study: Cos Cob Power Plant, Connecticut 360
6. Conclusions 370
Acknowledgments 371
References 371
Chapter 15: Characterization and Remediation of a Brownfield Site: The Bagnoli Case in Italy 374
1. Introduction 375
2. Environmental Remediation of the Brownfield Site 376
3. Geological Settings of the Bagnoli–Fuorigrotta Area and Stratigraphy of the Brownfield Site 377
4. Potential Sources of Anthropogenic Pollution 379
5. Hydrogeological Characteristics of the Bagnoli – Fuorigrotta Plain 380
6. Site Characterization 381
7. Natural and Anthropogenic Components for the Pollution 392
8. Chemical–Structural Characterization of Waste Material and Leachability Tests 395
9. Asbestos Characterization and Remediation 396
10. Preliminary Operative Remediation Plan 396
11. Securing the Site 401
Acknowledgments 402
References 403
Chapter 16: Relationships Between Heavy Metal Distribution and Cancer Mortality Rates in the Campania Region, Italy 406
1. Introduction 406
2. Geology, Geochemical Data, and Cancer Mortality Data of Campania Region 407
3. Methods 410
4. Discussion of Results 414
5. Conclusions 417
Acknowledgments 418
References 418
Chapter 17: Chronic Arsenic Poisoning from Domestic Combustion of Coal in Rural China: A Case Study of the Relationship Between Earth Materials and Human Health 420
1. Introduction 421
2. Previous Studies 421
3. The Size of the Problem 423
4. Symptoms and Etiology of Arsenosis 425
5. Methods 427
6. Geological Setting 428
7. Geochemistry of the Coal 430
8. Mineralogy and Mode of Occurrence of Arsenic in Guizhou Coal 430
9. Chinese Sedimentary Rock-Hosted, Carlin-Type, Gold Deposits 434
10. Metamorphism of Coal and Trace-Element Enrichment 435
11. Mitigation of Chronic Arsenic Poisoning in Guizhou Province 435
12. Conclusions 436
Acknowledgments 436
References 436
Index 440
CHAPTER ONE FIELD METHODS IN REGIONAL GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS
Reijo Salminen*,
*Geological Survey of Finland, 02151 Espoo, Finland
Abstract
This chapter summarizes experiences from a number of recently completed regional-scale geochemical surveys. The aim is to briefly show the most essential issues to be taken into account in planning and carrying out geochemical surveys in the field. Whether the aim of a geochemical survey is prospecting, environmental assessment, or something else, the main principles in the fieldwork are always the same.
Contents
1. Introduction
5. Quality Assurance in Sampling
7. Documentation of Field Data
8. Photography
1. INTRODUCTION
Geochemical studies vary enormously in an area. At one extreme, they cover continent-wide areas (Gustavsson et al., 2001; Salminen et al., 2005), based on information from not more than a thousand sites, while at the other, detailed maps, based on several thousands of samples, are produced from a small prospecting target (e.g., Kauranne, 1976; McClenaghan et al., 2001).
Studies at different scales differ considerably in the way they are carried out. Not only sampling density, but sampling material, sampling depth, analytical methods, and data processing also essentially depend on the aim of the study, the size of the area to be studied, the objects to be recognized, and the contrast between the anomaly and the surrounding area. The sources of the anomalies detected by different sampling densities are also totally different in nature.
2. SAMPLING MEDIA
Minerogenic stream sediments are the traditional medium in small-scale, regional geochemical mapping, particularly if the aim is ore prospecting. In areas of residual overburden, minerogenic stream sediments have proven to be very useful, providing data from a wide drainage area where the stream has been in contact with the bedrock (Hale and Plant, 1994). The most suitable conditions prevail in areas of temperate climate where the rivers are draining in situ weathered bedrock, and mountainous areas where the bedrock is widely exposed.
In glaciated areas, the stream is usually disconnected from the bedrock by till and the stream sediments may thus only reflect the variation of element contents in till. The interpretation of results for prospecting purposes becomes complicated. However, in till-covered mountainous areas such as Scotland (Plant et al., 1984) and Norway (Wennervirta et al., 1971), useful results were obtained by stream sediment geochemistry.
Till has conventionally been exploited as a sampling material only on local-scale prospecting studies. However, results from Scandinavia and adjacent areas (Bølviken et al., 1986; Koljonen, 1992; Reimann et al., 1998; Salminen et al., 1995) have shown beyond doubt that highly informative and easily interpreted results can be obtained from till geochemistry practiced on a regional or reconnaissance scale.
In the 1990s and earlier, environmental applications became important in geochemical mapping. New sampling media such as surface water and terrestrial mosses were tested and became more commonly used in geochemical surveys (Lahermo et al., 1990, 1996; Reimann et al., 1998; Rühling 1994; Salminen et al., 2005; Salminen, 2004; Steinnes et al., 1992). This development also brought some new variation not only in the sample media but also in sampling, analysis, and data management methodologies. In principle, most geochemical mapping data can also be used in environmental geochemical studies.
In exploration geochemistry, the concept of a geochemical background value is used to differentiate anomalies caused by mineralized occurrences from the geogenic anomalies caused by normal nonmineralized bedrock. In environmental geochemistry, a new concept of the geochemical baseline was needed to differentiate contamination derived from a point source from that derived from the general background, which includes both natural geogenic element concentration and diffuse anthropogenic pollution (Salminen and Gregorauskiene, 2000). Environmental geochemical studies have concentrated increasingly on defining baselines rather than on detecting high anomaly points; methods to separate local and regional components (anomaly and baseline) have been developed (e.g., De Vivo et al., 2006).
In an attempt to establish a global, common understanding of continuously varying methodologies in regional geochemical surveys, the sampling media were discussed very thoroughly in the 1980s and 1990s as part of the IGCP 259 (International Geoscience Programme) (International Geochemical Mapping) and IGCP 360 (Global Geochemical Baselines) projects. Furthermore, this discussion has continued in the framework of the IUGS/IAGC (International Union of Geological Sciences/International Association of Geochemistry) Working Group on Global Geochemical Baselines. Darnley et al. (1995) concluded the earlier discussions with recommendations that were globally accepted. These recommended media, described below, are considered to be the most representative of the Earth’s surface environment, and are the most commonly used in past and current environmental geochemical investigations.
• Stream water (filtered and unfiltered)
• Stream sediment: mineral sediment (<0.15 mm)
• Residual soil: upper 0–25 cm horizon/topsoil without the top organic layer (<2 mm)
• Residual soil: lower (C) horizon/subsoil; a 25-cm layer within a depth range of 50–200 cm (<2 mm)
• Organic soil layer (humus)
• Overbank sediment: upper 0–25 cm horizon (<0.15 mm)
• Overbank sediment: bottom layer (<0.15 mm)
• Floodplain sediment: upper 0–25 cm horizon (<2 mm) and
• Floodplain sediment: bottom layer (<2 mm)
Stream, overbank, and floodplain sediment samples generally reflect the average geogenic composition of a catchment basin for most elements, although they are somewhat sensitive to pollution. Stream sediment is the most widely used sample material in regional geochemical surveys throughout the world.
Stream waters reflect the interplay between geosphere/hydrosphere and pollution. At the same time, they have a huge economic value, often being a major source of drinking water in some countries.
Soil samples reflect variations in the geogenic composition of the uppermost layers of the Earth’s crust. As a result, it is important in regional surveys to avoid soil sampling at locations that have visible or known contamination. Priority for site selection of soil samples should be given to
• forested and unused lands;
• greenland and pastures; and
• noncultivated parts of agricultural land (in very special cases, where residual soil cannot be found).
Comparison of topsoil and subsoil data gives information about enrichment or depletion processes between the layers. One such process is anthropogenic contamination of the top layer. The <2-mm fraction is used most often in environmental and soil scientific studies, whereas the <0.18-mm and finer fractions have been widely used in mineral exploration programs. The FOREGS (Forum for European Geological Surveys) data was planned to be used to create a link between environmental and mineral exploration databases.
Organic soil layer (humus) samples can be used to determine the atmospheric (anthropogenic) input of elements to the ecosystem over a period of tens of years. To reach this aim, samples are collected in forested areas. To reflect the atmospheric input, the uppermost few centimetres of the organic layer are collected immediately under the green vegetation and litter (max. 3 cm).
3. SAMPLING DENSITY
In geochemical studies, the sampling density varies very much according to the aim of the study. Geochemical studies have been classified according to the sampling density in many ways. Ginzburg (1960) divided it into three classes according to the scale of the study: (i)...
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 21.7.2008 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Ökologie / Naturschutz |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Geowissenschaften ► Geologie | |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Geowissenschaften ► Geophysik | |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Physik / Astronomie | |
| Technik ► Bergbau | |
| Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik | |
| Technik ► Umwelttechnik / Biotechnologie | |
| Wirtschaft | |
| ISBN-10 | 0-08-055895-X / 008055895X |
| ISBN-13 | 978-0-08-055895-0 / 9780080558950 |
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