Marine Mineral Exploration (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Marine Mineral Exploration 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 12
Preface 8
List of Contributors 6
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 16
Historical events in oceanography 19
National oceanographic institutions and agencies 22
International organisations 26
Marine mineralexploration and strategies 29
REFERENCES 33
CHAPTER 2. MARINE HARD MINERAL RESOURCES 36
INTRODUCTION 36
PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF THE OCEAN FLOOR 37
MARINE HARD MINERAL OCCURRENCES 39
Unconsolidated sedimentary deposits 41
Nodular and crust deposits 50
Massive sulfide deposits at mid-ocean ridges 60
REFERENCES 65
CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH VESSELS AND SUBMERSIBLES 70
INTRODUCTION 70
STATISTICS OF RESEARCH VESSELS AND SUBMERSIBLES 71
Research vessels 71
Submersibles 73
REQUIREMENTS OF RESEARCH VESSELS 76
Main dimensions 77
General arrangement 77
Deck space 77
Seakeeping 78
Propulsion 78
Dynamic positioning 79
Electric power 79
Ice strengthening 79
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS 80
Terrestrial navigation 80
Astronomical navigation 80
Radio navigation 80
Inertial navigation 81
Satellite navigation 81
EXAMPLES OF OCEAN RESEARCH VESSELS AND SUBMERSIBLES 84
Research vessel RV "Sonne" 86
Geotechnical research vessel 88
Deep sea drilling vessel "Joides Resolution" 90
Submersible "Perry PC-18" 92
Remotely operated vehicle (ROV) "Super Scorpio" 94
REFERENCES 94
CHAPTER 4. MARINE GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES 96
INTRODUCTION 96
ACOUSTIC SURVEYING TECHNIQUES 97
Echosounder principle 97
Echosounders for shallow water 98
Echosounders for deep water survey 98
Multiple beam echosounders 99
Side-scan sonars 105
Subbottom profiler 107
Deep tow system 109
SEISMIC EXPLORATION METHODS 112
Refraction seismic 112
Reflection seismic 112
MARINE GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS 119
MARINE MAGNETICS 121
Execution of marine geomagnetic surveys 122
Magnetic anomalies 124
Interpretation techniques 126
HEATFLOW MEASUREMENTS 126
VISUAL INSPECTION OF THE SEAFLOOR 128
Photographic survey, still cameras, photo sled 129
Deep sea TV 131
REFERENCES 131
CHAPTER 5. MARINE GEOCHEMICAL EXPLORATION METHODS 136
INTRODUCTION 136
MARINE EXPLORATION SAMPLING DEVICES 138
Water sampling devices 138
Seafloor surface and upper substrata sampling apparatus 142
Seafloor substrata sampling instruments 148
ANALYTICAL METHODS IN MARINE MINERAL EXPLORATION 153
Sample preparation 153
Analytical techniques 156
GEOCHEMICAL EXPLORATION EXAMPLES 164
Placer deposits off eastern Australia 165
Geochemical methods applied at the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge 167
REFERENCES 169
CHAPTER 6. DATA EVALUATION OF EXPLORATION SURVEYS 172
INTRODUCTION 172
DATA COLLECTION AND STORAGE 173
The tool-box: the data bases 173
Nature and type of data 174
Verification of data 176
DATA STRUCTURE ANALYSIS 181
Standard statistics 181
Correlation analysis 182
Geostatistics 191
DATA REPRESENTATION 194
Projections and scales of the maps 194
Plotting the data 196
DATA INTERPRETATION 197
Characterization of mineral deposit 198
Resources and reserves assessment 199
CONCLUSION 202
REFERENCES 202
CHAPTER 7. MARINE MINERAL EXPLORATION EXAMPLES 206
INTRODUCTION 206
METALLIFEROUS SEDIMENTS: THE RED SEA 206
Initial considerations 207
Red Sea exploration history 209
MASSIVE SULFIDES AT THE EAST PACIFIC RISE 217
Massive sulfides and hydrothermal products 217
Sulfide occurrences on the East Pacific Rise 220
Proposed exploration strategy for massive sulfides 222
DEEPSEA MANGANESE NODULES IN THE EQUATORIAL PACIFIC 231
History and project development 231
Characteristic features of manganese nodule deposits 233
German manganese nodule exploration efforts 235
Exploration tools and methods 242
Status of the manganese nodule project 244
COBALT-RICH CRUSTS OF PACIFIC SEAMOUNTS 247
PHOSPHORITE CONCRETIONS OFF NEW ZEALAND 251
History and occurrence 251
Exploration tools and methods 252
REFERENCES 256
CHAPTER 8. LEGAL ASPECTS OF MARINE MINERAL EXPLORATION 260
INTRODUCTION 260
AREAS WITHIN NATIONAL JURISDICTION 263
Internal waters and the territorial sea 263
The continental shelf 264
THE 'AREA' BEYOND THE LIMITS OF NATIONAL JURISDICTION 265
The UN regime 265
The 'Reciprocating States' regime 268
Exploration licences under British Law 269
Recent developments conflict resolution 270
CONCLUSION AND PROSPECT 272
REFERENCES 273
APPENDIX I . Additional references 274
APPENDIX II. Hypothetical marine jurisctional claims 292
APPENDIX III. Proposed strategies for the exploration of metalliferous sedinemts 296
INDEX 300