* Includes coverage on six different disturbance processes: Wind, Gravity, Geomorphic, Hydrologic, Combustion, and Biotic
* Provides a clear explanation of how some of the physical processes of disturbance affect plant ecological processes
* Offers ecologists an up-to-date understanding of the physical processes and allows them to predict future affects of disturbances
* Unites two related fields by linking the disturbance processes and ecological responses
* Presents physical scientists with ideas of how they might usefully apply their knowledge to advance understanding of ecological systems
The media coverage of natural disasters (hurricanes, fires, floods, ice storms, etc.) indicates the prevalence of natural disasters in most, if not all, ecosystems. In order for scientists to study, understand, and ultimately predict how these disturbances affect ecosystems, it is necessary for them to know more about the physical processes involved in these disturbances and to learn how to couple these processes to the ecological systems. Essential for all ecologists, forest researchers, and conservation biologists, this book includes chapters on the disturbance processes, how the disturbance causes necrosis or death to individuals, and their effects on population or community processes. In Plant Disturbance Ecology, physical scientists who study disturbances provide an introduction to the physical disturbance processes, while ecologists relate this information to the way the vegetation responds to the disturbances. This reference is also key for all researchers hydrology, geomorphology, and environmental management. Includes coverage on six different disturbance processes: Wind, Gravity, Geomorphic, Hydrologic, Combustion, and Biotic Provides a clear explanation of how some of the physical processes of disturbance affect plant ecological processes Offers ecologists an up-to-date understanding of the physical processes and allows them to predict future affects of disturbances Unites two related fields by linking the disturbance processes and ecological responses Presents physical scientists with ideas of how they might usefully apply their knowledge to advance understanding of ecological systems
Front Cover 1
Plant Disturbance Ecology the Process and the Response 4
Copyright page 5
Dedication Page 6
Contents 8
Contributors 14
Preface 18
Acknowledgments 22
Chapter 1: Disturbance and Succession 23
Introduction 23
Disturbance as the Nemesis of Succession 24
The Chronosequence Basis of Succession 27
Coupling Disturbance and Vegetation Processes 28
Conclusion 32
References 34
Chapter 2: The Turbulent Wind in Plant and Forest Canopies 37
Introduction 37
The Structure of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Over Land 39
Characteristics of Turbulent Flow In and Above Plant Canopies 44
Effects of Topography and Heterogeneity 58
Implications of This Velocity Structure for Canopy Disturbance 71
Summary 76
References 78
Chapter 3: Microbursts and Macrobursts: Windstorms and Blowdowns 81
Introduction 81
Convective Storms and Downbursts 82
Vertical Equation of Motion 90
Climatology 93
Downdrafts, Mesocyclones, and Outflows 97
Microbursts 102
Large-Scale Systems 109
Summary 117
References 117
Additional Reference 123
Chapter 4: Understanding How the Interaction of Wind and Trees Results in Windthrow, Stem Breakage, and Canopy Gap Formation 125
Introduction 125
Theoretical Core 129
Applied Force 132
Resistive Force 145
Direct Consequences 150
Subsequent Impact of Windthrow, Stem Breakage, and Gap/Patch Formation 159
Summary and Conclusions 163
Acknowledgments 165
References 165
Appendix 1: Glossary and Definitions 175
Chapter 5: Meteorological Conditions Associated with Ice Storm Damage to Forests 179
Introduction 179
Synoptic Conditions for Freezing Rain 180
Climatology of Freezing Rain in Canada 189
Meteorological Evolution of Ice Storm ‘98 191
Possible Changes in Ice Storm Frequency Under a Warming Climate 198
Summary 199
References 200
Chapter 6: The Effect of Icing Events on the Death and Regeneration of North American Trees 203
Introduction 203
The Biomechanics of Branch Breakage During Ice Events With and Without Wind 207
Ice Measurements in the Field 222
A Review of the Literature on Tree Damage Caused By Icing Events 223
The Population Consequences of Major Ice Events 228
References 233
Chapter 7: Disturbance Processes and Dynamics in Coastal Dunes 237
Introduction 237
Dune Types and Disturbance Types and Processes 238
Conclusion 262
Acknowledgments 263
References 263
Chapter 8: Coastal Dune Succession and the Reality of Dune Processes 271
Introduction 271
Traditional Dune Succession Hypothesis 274
Problems with the Dune Succession Hypothesis 277
Process-Response Alternative to Traditional Succession Hypothesis 283
Conclusion 295
Acknowledgments 297
References 297
Chapter 9: Fluvial Geomorphic Disturbances and Life History Traits of Riparian Tree Species 305
Introduction 305
Geomorphic Classification of Riparian Zones and Disturbance Regimes in A Catchment 308
Disturbance, Reliability of Regeneration Habitat, and Life History of Dominant Tree Species 312
Conclusion 326
Acknowledgments 328
References 328
Chapter 10: Water Level Changes in Ponds and Lakes: The Hydrological Processes 333
Introduction 333
Water Balance 334
Case Study: Northern Prairie Wetlands 351
Conclusions 356
Acknowledgments 357
Appendix: List of Symbols 357
References 359
Chapter 11: Development of Post-Disturbance Vegetation in Prairie Wetlands 363
Introduction 363
Wet-Dry Cycles 366
Marsh Ecology Research Program 367
Coenocline Development: Same Pre- and Post-Disturbance Water Levels 370
Coenocline Development: Different Pre- and Post-Disturbance Water Levels 379
Models of Coenocline Development 384
Conclusions 388
References 389
Chapter 12: Modeling Heating Effects 393
Introduction 393
Conservation Laws 394
Simple Examples 395
Application to More Realistic Scenarios 404
Case Study: A Model of Seed Survival 409
Conclusion 414
Acknowledgments 415
Appendix: Notation 415
References 416
Chapter 13: Fire Effects on Grasslands 419
Introduction 419
The Grass Growth Form 421
Regeneration from Seed 425
Grasses as Fuel, Mulch, and Forage 427
Drought Disturbance: A Primary Driver 435
Direct Fire Effects 437
Grassfire and Nutrients 446
Grasses and Woody Plants 447
A Final Caution—Grasses and Fires 452
References 453
Chapter 14: Wildfire and Tree Population Processes 463
Introduction 463
Wildfire Processes and Characteristics 465
Local Populations and Processes 477
Regional Populations and Processes 493
Conclusions 499
References 500
Chapter 15: Insect Defoliators as Periodic Disturbances in Northern Forest Ecosystems 509
Introduction 509
Defoliating Insects as a Distinct Class of Forest Disturbance 513
The Process of Insect Disturbance 517
Population Dynamics of Foliage-Grazers 524
Conclusion 540
Acknowledgments 542
References 542
Chapter 16: Dynamics of Mountain Pine Beetle Outbreaks 549
Introduction 549
Derivation of the Red Top Model 553
Results of the Fully Developed Model 569
Discussion and Conclusion 572
Acknowledgments 573
References 574
Chapter 17: Relationship Between Spruce Budworm Outbreaks and Forest Dynamics in Eastern North America 577
Introduction 577
History of Spruce Budworm Outbreaks Over the Past 8600 Years 581
Variation in Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of Outbreaks: Reflection of Changes in Forest Structure 586
References 596
Chapter 18: Impact of Beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl) Foraging on Species Composition of Boreal Forests 601
Introduction 601
Herbivory in Boreal Forests 603
Temporal Changes in Beaver Populations 604
Traditional Understanding of Beaver Foraging Impact on Plant Community Structure 607
Understanding Beaver Foraging Impacts on Composition and Dynamics of the Boreal Forest 610
Conclusion 619
Acknowledgments 620
References 620
Chapter 19: Beaver, Willow Shrubs, and Floods 625
Introduction 625
Background 629
Theory for Interaction of Flow and Shrubs 644
Model Results 660
Discussion 670
Summary and Conclusions 689
References 692
Index 695
1 Disturbance and Succession
Edward A. Johnson
University of Calgary
Kiyoko Miyanishi
University of Guelph
INTRODUCTION
Natural or anthropogenic disturbance was traditionally viewed as an event that initiated primary or secondary succession, and succession explained the development of vegetation in the absence of disturbance. Thus, the concepts of disturbance and succession are inextricably linked in plant ecology.
Succession has been used in so many different ways and situations that it is almost useless as a precise idea. However, no matter whether succession has been considered a population (Peet and Christensen, 1980), community (Cooper, 1923a; 1923b; Clements, 1916), or ecosystem (Odum, 1969) phenomenon or process, it has contained certain common ideas. Succession is an orderly unidirectional process of community change in which communities replace each other sequentially until a stable (self-reproducing) community is reached (see definitions in Abercrombie et al. 1973; Small and Witherick, 1986; Allaby, 1994). The explanation of why and how succession is directed has changed over its more than hundred-year history, but most arguments share the notion that species are adapted to different stages in successions and in some way make the environment unsuited for themselves and more suited for the species in the next stage. This group selection argument was first instilled into succession in the Lamarckian ideas of Warming, Cowles, and Clements.
Succession arose at the end of the 1800s and early 1900s out of a naturalist observation tradition when quantitative methods were almost nonexistent, Aristotelean essentialism (Hull, 1965a, 1965b; Nordenskiöld, 1928) still had a firm grip on how nature should be understood, and meteorology, soil science, biology, and geology were very poorly developed. Further, and equally important, spatial and temporal scales of observation were limited to the scale of a naturalist’s sight.
DISTURBANCE AS THE NEMESIS OF SUCCESSION
By the beginning of 2000, most of the original classical examples of succession (e.g., Cowles, 1899; Shelford, 1911; Cooper, 1923b) given in textbooks had been restudied and found not to support the original arguments.
The first example in North America of primary succession was that on sand dunes (Cowles, 1899). The spatial sequence of plant communities as one moves away from the lake was interpreted by Cowles (1899; 1901) and Clements (1916) as representing a temporal succession of communities from dune grasses to cottonwoods, then pines and oaks to the climax beech-sugar maple forest (see Fig. 1 in Chapter 8). Olson’s (1958) study of the same dunes using techniques that allowed actual dating of the dunes produced a much more complex picture of community changes than the previously proposed simple sequence from grasses to mesophytic forest. Olson found that dunes of similar age supported a wide range of plant communities, depending on the location as well as the disturbance history of the site.
FIG. 1 Diagram illustrating the process-response model or approach to studying ecological effects of disturbance.
A second classic example of primary succession was that on glacial till left by the retreating glacier at Glacier Bay, Alaska (Cooper, 1923a; 1923b; 1926; 1931; 1939). Again, the spatial pattern of vegetation on areas deglaciated at varying times was interpreted as representing the temporal stages of communities through which each site would pass from herbaceous Dryas and Epilobium to shrubby willow and alder thickets, then Sitka spruce forest, and finally the spruce-hemlock climax forest. Subsequently, Crocker and Major’s (1955) study of soil properties at the different aged sites concluded that occupation of each site by the shrubs, particularly the nitrogen-fixing alders, allowed subsequent establishment of the later successional tree species through soil alteration (changes in pH and addition of carbon and nitrogen). However, Cooper’s original study sites were reexamined by Fastie (1995), who found that the tree ring record from spruces in the oldest three sites did not indicate early suppression of growth with subsequent release once the spruces had exceeded the height of the alder or willow canopy. In other words, these oldest sites apparently had not experienced a succession from a community dominated by alders and willows to one dominated by spruce. Furthermore, the oldest sites showed a much more rapid colonization by a dense stand of trees soon after the sites were deglaciated compared to the younger sites. The differences between the different aged sites in their vegetation history (i.e., the order and rate of species establishment) as shown by Fastie’s reconstructions were explained primarily by the availability of propagules (distance to seed source) at the time the retreating ice exposed the bare substrate. Interestingly, Cooper (1923b) had also noted that “establishment of the climax does not depend upon previous dominance of alder, for in the areas of pure willow thicket the spruces were found to be invading with equal vigor,” “almost any plant of the region may be found among the vanguard,” and “even the climax trees make their first appearance with the pioneers.” Despite such observations, the lasting legacy of the early studies of primary succession at Glacier Bay has been the classic successional idea of sequential invasion and replacement of dominants driven by facilitation. As Colinvaux stated in his 1993 textbook Ecology 2: “The record from Glacier Bay shows that a spruce-hemlock forest cannot grow on the raw habitat left by the glacier, but that spruce trees and hemlock can claim habitats that have first been lived on by pioneer plants and alder bushes…. [I]t is undeniable that primary succession on glacial till at Glacier Bay is driven by habitat modification.”
A third example of primary succession was the hydrarch succession of bogs and dune ponds. As with both of the previous examples, the spatial pattern of vegetation outward from the edge of bogs was interpreted as representing successional stages, leading to the conclusion by Clements (1916) that the open water would eventually become converted to a mesophytic forested site. However, the paleoecological reconstruction by Heinselman (1963) of the Myrtle Lake bog in Minnesota indicated that, despite deposition of organic matter and mineral sediments into the bog since deglaciation, the open water has persisted and has not been filled in and invaded by the surrounding forest because of the rising water table with the accumulation of peat.
Shelford (1911; 1913) used the spatial sequence of ponds in the Indiana Dunes of Lake Michigan to develop a model of temporal change in vegetation resulting from hydrarch succession. Jackson et al. (1988) tested this classic hydrosere model by using paleoecological data spanning 3000 years and found no evidence of significant change in vegetation until the early 1800s, when rapid change occurred following European settlement. They concluded that the spatial differences in vegetation along the chronosequence reflected differential effects of disturbance rather than any temporal successional pattern.
A fourth example, this time of secondary succession in forests, by Stephens (1955) and Oliver and Stephens (1977) concerned whether forest canopy composition resulted from the continuous recruitment of new stems of more shade-tolerant species. What they found in the old, mixed-species, northern hardwoods Harvard Forest in Massachusetts was the overriding influence of small- and large-scale disturbances, both natural and anthropogenic. While small disturbances allowed release of suppressed understory trees that might otherwise never make it to the canopy, large disturbances resulted in seedling establishment of new trees. Thus, the canopy composition was determined by disturbance processes. Foster (1988) came to the same conclusions about the old-growth Pisgah Forest in New Hampshire.
Poulson and Platt’s (1996) long-term study of Warren Woods, the classic example of a climax beech-maple forest (Cain, 1935), led them to conclude that natural disturbances were chronic, occurring dependably on an ecological time scale and producing continual changes in light regimes. Because tree species respond differentially to the changing light conditions, different species are favored under different light regimes. Thus, the relative abundance of tree species in the understory at any given time cannot be used to predict the composition of the canopy at some later time. Poulson and Platt (1996) presented data to show that the relative abundance of beech and maple (as well as other species) in the canopy fluctuates in response to spatial and temporal fluctuations in frequency and sizes of treefall gaps. This is despite Cain’s (1935) tentative conclusion, based on the abundant maple reproduction he observed, that “maple seems destined to increase in importance.” In other words, the system is neither in, nor tending toward, an equilibrium climax community dominated by the most shade-tolerant species growing from...
Erscheint lt. Verlag | 20.7.2010 |
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Sprache | englisch |
Themenwelt | Sachbuch/Ratgeber ► Natur / Technik ► Natur / Ökologie |
Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Botanik | |
Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Ökologie / Naturschutz | |
Naturwissenschaften ► Geowissenschaften ► Geologie | |
Technik ► Umwelttechnik / Biotechnologie | |
Wirtschaft | |
Weitere Fachgebiete ► Land- / Forstwirtschaft / Fischerei | |
ISBN-10 | 0-08-049295-9 / 0080492959 |
ISBN-13 | 978-0-08-049295-7 / 9780080492957 |
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