Clean Coal Engineering Technology (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Clean Coal Engineering Technology 2
Copyright 3
Dedication 4
Contents 6
Preface 14
Chapter 1: Coal as Fuel 16
1.1. Organization of this Book 16
1.2. The History of Coal Use 17
1.3. Coal Use before the Industrial Revolution 17
1.3.1. The Early History of U.S. Coal Mining and Use 18
1.4. Coal Use during the Industrial Revolution 19
1.5. The Post-Industrial Revolution Use of Coal 20
1.6. An Overview of Energy in the United States 21
1.7. Coal Production in the United States 27
1.8. Coal Consumption in the United States 35
1.9. U.S. Coal Exports and Imports 37
1.10. World Primary Energy Production and Consumption 39
1.10.1. World Primary Energy Production 39
1.10.2 World Primary Energy Consumption 46
1.11. Projections of Energy Use and Coal's Contribution to the Energy Mix 50
1.11.1 World Consumption of Liquid Fuels 53
1.11.2 World Consumption of Natural Gas 54
1.11.3 World Consumption of Coal 54
1.11.4 World Consumption of Nuclear Energy 59
1.11.5 World Consumption of Renewable Energy 60
1.11.6 Energy Outlook for the United States 61
1.12. Coal's Role in the U.S.'s 2001 Energy Policy 64
References 66
Chapter 2: The Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Coal 68
2.1. The Definition of Coal 68
2.2. Origin of Coal 68
2.3. Coalification 69
2.4. The Classification of Coal 72
2.4.1 Basic Coal Analysis 72
2.4.2 The Ranks of Coal 74
2.4.3 The Types of Coal 76
2.4.4 The Grades of Coal 78
2.4.5 Classification Systems 78
References 83
Chapter 3: The Worldwide Distribution of Coal 84
3.1 Coal Distribution and Resources 84
3.1.1 Coal Reserves throughout the World 85
3.2 Major Coal-Producing Regions in the World 89
3.2.1 North America 89
3.2.2 Eurasia 93
3.2.3 Middle East, Asia, and Oceania 95
3.2.4 Europe 96
3.2.5 Africa 97
3.2.6 Central and South America 98
References 98
Chapter 4: The Effect of Coal Usage on Human Health and the Environment 100
4.1. Coal Mining 101
4.1.1 Underground Mining 101
4.1.2 Surface Mining 111
4.1.3 Legislation and Reclamation 114
4.2. Coal Preparation 115
4.2.1 Water Contamination from Preparation Plants 117
4.2.2 Air Contamination from Preparation Plants 117
4.2.3 Refuse Contaminants from Preparation Plants 117
4.2.4 Health and Safety Issues 118
4.3. Coal Transportation 119
4.4. Coal Combustion By-Products 120
4.5. Emissions from Coal Combustion 122
4.5.1 Sulfur Oxides 122
4.5.2 Nitrogen Oxides 125
4.5.3 Particulate Matter 127
4.5.4 Organic Compounds 131
4.5.5 Carbon Monoxide 131
4.5.6 Trace Elements 132
4.5.7 Greenhouse Gases—Carbon Dioxide 139
References 144
Chapter 5: Introduction to Coal Utilization Technologies 148
5.1. Coal Combustion 148
5.1.1 Brief History of Boilers and Coal Combustion Systems 149
5.1.2 Basic Steam Fundamentals and their Application to Boiler Development 157
5.1.3 The Chemistry of Coal Combustion 159
5.1.4 Coal Combustion Systems 164
5.1.5 Influence of Coal Properties on Utility Boiler Design 181
5.2. Carbonization 187
5.2.1 Brief History of Carbonization (High-Temperature) 189
5.2.2 Coking Processes 190
5.2.3 Coal Properties for Coke Production 193
5.2.4 Coking Conditions 194
5.2.5 Low-Temperature Carbonization 194
5.3. Gasification 198
5.3.1 Brief History of Coal Gasification 198
5.3.2 Principles of Coal Gasification 199
5.3.3 Gasifier Types 200
5.3.4 Influence of Coal Properties on Gasification 204
5.3.5 Regional Distribution of Gasification Systems 206
5.3.6 Commercial Gasification Systems 209
5.4. Liquefaction 220
5.4.1 The Beginning of the Synthetic Fuel Industry 221
5.4.2 Indirect Liquefaction—Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis 222
5.4.3 Direct Liquefaction 224
References 230
Chapter 6: Anatomy of a Coal-Fired Power Plant 234
6.1. Coal Transport to the Power Plant 234
6.2. Coal Handling, Storage, and Processing 238
6.2.1 Coal Handling 239
6.2.2 Coal Storage 240
6.2.3 Coal Processing/Size Reduction 241
6.3. Steam Generation 251
6.3.1 Furnace and Convection Pass 251
6.3.2 Steam Superheaters and Reheaters 252
6.3.3 Economizers 252
6.3.4 Steam Drums 252
6.3.5 Steam Temperature Controls 254
6.3.6 Air Heaters (Preheaters) 254
6.4. Steam Turbines and Electricity Generation 254
6.4.1 Steam Turbines 254
6.4.2 Electric Generators 257
6.5. Steam Condensers and Cooling Towers 257
6.5.1 Steam Condensers 257
6.5.2 Cooling Towers 258
6.6. Water Treatment 258
6.7. Environmental Protection 261
6.8. Ash and By-Product Handling 262
6.8.1 Bottom Ash Systems 262
6.8.2 Convective Pass/Economizer Ash Systems 262
6.8.3 Fly Ash Systems 263
6.8.4 Scrubber Sludge Systems 264
References 265
Chapter 7: Clean Coal Technologies for Advanced Power Generation 266
7.1. Power Cycles 266
7.1.1 Rankine Cycle 266
7.1.2 The Brayton Cycle 268
7.1.3 Combined Cycle 268
7.2. Pulverized Coal-Fired Power Plants 269
7.2.1 Advanced Pulverized Coal-Fired Plants 270
7.2.2 Advanced Ultra-Supercritical Research and Development 275
7.2.3 Oxy-Fuel Firing in Pulverized Coal-Fired Boilers 276
7.3. Fluidized-Bed Combustion 279
7.3.1 Introduction 279
7.3.2 Heat Transfer 281
7.3.3 Combustion Efficiency 282
7.3.4 Fuel Flexibility 282
7.3.5 Pollutant Formation and Control 284
7.3.6 Supercritical Fluidized-Bed Boilers and Oxy-Coal Firing in Fluidized-Bed Boilers 297
7.4. Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle 297
7.4.1 Introduction 298
7.4.2 Gasification Island 299
7.4.3 Gas Treatment and Sulfur Recovery 300
7.4.4 Combined Cycle Power Plant 305
7.4.5 IGCC with Carbon Capture 305
7.4.6 Benefits and Limits of IGCC 306
7.4.7 Commercial Status 309
7.5. IGCC Research Needs 311
References 311
Chapter 8: Coal-Fired Emissions and Legislative Action 316
8.1. Major Coal-Related Health Episodes 316
8.1.1 Pre-Industrial Revolution 316
8.1.2 Post-Industrial Revolution 317
8.2. History of Legislative Action for Coal-Fired Power Plants 318
8.2.1 Pre-1970 Legislation 318
8.2.2 The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 320
8.2.3 Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 and Prevention of Significant Deterioration 330
8.2.4 Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 332
8.2.5 Additional NOx Regulations and Trading Programs 339
8.2.6 Clean Air Interstate Rule 342
8.2.7 Clean Air Mercury Rule 343
8.2.8 New Source Review 345
8.2.9 Fine Particulate Matter 347
8.2.10 Impending Legislation and Pollutants under Consideration for Regulation 348
8.3. Emissions Legislation in Other Countries 352
8.3.1 Sulfur Dioxide 352
8.3.2 Nitrogen Oxides 356
8.3.3 Particulate Matter 360
8.3.4 Trace Elements/Mercury 361
8.3.5 Carbon Dioxide 363
8.4. Air Quality and Coal-Fired Emissions 364
8.4.1 Six Principal Pollutants 366
8.4.2 Acid Rain 377
8.4.3 Hazardous Air Pollutants 381
8.4.4 Carbon Dioxide 384
References 386
Chapter 9: Emissions Control Strategies for Power Plants 390
9.1. Currently Regulated Emissions 391
9.1.1 Sulfur Dioxide 392
9.1.2 Nitrogen Oxides 428
9.1.3 Particulate Matter 452
9.2. Pollutants with Pending Compliance Regulation 474
9.2.1 Mercury 474
9.3. Multipollutant Control 487
9.3.1 ECO Process 488
9.3.2 Airborne Process 489
9.3.3 Multipollutant Control for Smaller Coal-Fired Boilers 489
9.3.4 Nalco Mobotec Systems 489
9.3.5 Others 490
References 490
Chapter 10: CO2 Capture and Storage 498
10.1. CO2 Capture Technologies 500
10.1.1 Precombustion (IGCC) CO2 Capture 501
10.1.2 Oxy-Fuel Combustion 502
10.1.3 Postcombustion CO2 Capture 502
10.1.4 Biomass Cofiring 511
10.2. Transport of CO2 512
10.3. CO2 Storage 513
10.3.1 Geologic Storage 513
10.3.2 Ocean Storage 515
10.3.3 Terrestrial Storage 516
10.3.4 Mineral Carbonation 516
10.4. Economics of CO2 Sequestration 517
10.4.1 Capture Costs 517
10.4.2 Costs of Transporting CO2 522
10.4.3 Storage Costs 523
10.5. Permanence and Monitoring, Mitigation, and Verification 524
References 525
Chapter 11: U.S. and International Activities for Near-Zero Emissions during Electricity Generation 528
11.1. Introduction to U.S. Clean Coal Technology Programs 528
11.2. Clean Coal Technology Demonstration Program 529
11.2.1 CCTDP Evolution 530
11.2.2 CCTDP Funding and Costs 531
11.2.3 CCTDP Projects 531
11.2.4 CCTDP Accomplishments 552
11.3. Power Plant Improvement Initiative 556
11.3.1 PPII Projects 557
11.3.2 Benefits of the PPII 561
11.4. Clean Coal Power Initiative 562
11.4.1 Program Importance 562
11.4.2 Round 1 CCPI Projects 563
11.4.3 Round 2 CCPI Projects 568
11.4.4 Round 3 CCPI (CCPI-3A and CCPI-3B) Projects 571
11.4.5 CCPI Benefits 573
11.5. Benefits of DOE's Clean Coal Technology Programs 574
11.6. Vision 21 578
11.6.1 Vision 21 Technologies 578
11.6.2 Vision 21 Benefits 580
11.7. FutureGen 580
11.8. DOE Carbon Sequestration Programs 583
11.9. International Carbon Sequestration Programs 587
11.10. International Clean Coal Technology and Carbon Sequestration Activities 587
11.10.1 Canada 588
11.10.2 Australia 589
11.10.3 Germany 591
11.10.4 Japan 591
11.10.5 China 592
11.10.6 Others 593
References 594
Chapter 12: Coal and Energy Security 600
12.1. Overview of U.S. Energy Security Issues 601
12.2. The Future of Energy in the United States 603
12.3. Energy and the Economy 604
12.4. Natural Gas Use in Power Generation 607
12.5. Coal's Potential to Reduce U.S. Dependence on Imported Crude Oil 609
12.6. Coal's Role in Future U.S. Electric Power Generation 611
12.7. Production of Hydrogen from Coal 618
12.8. Coal's Role in International Energy Security and Sustainable Development 619
12.8.1 International Demand for Electricity 619
12.8.2 Advanced Coal Technology Application Support for Sustained Coal Utilization 621
12.8.3 Energy Security 622
12.8.4 Sustainable Development 623
12.9. Concluding Statements 624
References 625
Appendix A:Regional Definitions 628
A.1. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 628
A.2. Non-Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (Non-OECD) 628
A.3. European Union (EU) 629
A.4. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 629
Appendix B: Commercial Gasification Facilities Worldwide 630
Appendix C: Coal-Fired Emission Factors 640
Appendix D: Original List of HazardousAir Pollutants 666
Appendix E: Initial 263 Units Identified in Phase I (SO2) of the Acid Rain Program 672
Index 676