Indigenous Peoples, Consent and Benefit Sharing (eBook)

Preface 6
Acknowledgements 7
Contents 10
List of Figures 12
List of Tables 13
List of Boxes 14
Contributors 15
Foreword 22
List of Acronyms 24
Part I: Community Consent and Benefit Sharing: The Context 27
1 Introduction 28
2 Justice and Benefit Sharing 36
2.1 Common Heritage of Humankind Versus National Sovereignty 38
2.2 Different Concepts of Justice 40
2.2.1 Natural Rights Versus Social Utility 41
2.2.2 Distributive Justice and Justice in Exchange 43
2.3 Benefit Sharing: Distributive Justice or Justice in Exchange? 45
2.4 Conclusion 49
References 50
3 Informed Consent: From Medical Research to Traditional Knowledge 52
3.1 Introduction 53
3.1.1 Informed Consent in the Medical Context 54
3.1.2 Prior Informed Consent in Accessing Traditional Knowledge 56
3.2 Consent 58
3.2.1 Consent and Health Care 58
3.3 Consent and Traditional Knowledge 61
3.4 Informed Consent 64
3.4.1 Informed Consent and Health Care 64
3.4.2 Informed Consent and Traditional Knowledge 65
3.5 Prior Informed Consent 68
3.6 Free Prior Informed Consent 71
3.7 Conclusion 73
References 74
4 Protecting the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: Can Prior Informed Consent Help? 77
4.1 Introduction 78
4.2 ‘Biopiracy’ 79
4.3 The Concept of Prior Informed Consent 82
4.4 Prior Informed Consent in Practice: Is It Workable? And What Good Can It Do Anyway? 85
4.4.1 The Peru International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups Project 85
4.4.2 The Rosy Periwinkle 87
4.5 Discussion 88
4.6 Conclusions 90
References 90
5 Bioprospecting, Access and Benefit Sharing: Revisiting the ‘Grand Bargain’ 92
5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 Bioprospecting through History 94
5.3 New Regulatory Frameworks for Bioprospecting 95
5.4 The Commercial Use of Biodiversity 97
5.5 Perceptions of Access and Benefit Sharing 100
5.6 Coming Back to Earth? Today’s Key Policy Issues 102
5.7 Conclusion 105
References 106
Part II: Learning from the San 110
6 Green Diamonds of the South: An Overview of the San- Hoodia Case 112
6.1 Introduction 113
6.2 The San 114
6.3 Traditional Use and Knowledge of Hoodia Species 116
6.4 Research and Development of Hoodia for Commercial Application 118
6.5 Negotiating a Benefit-Sharing Agreement with the CSIR 123
6.5.1 Initiating Talks 123
6.5.2 Reaching a Memorandum of Understanding 125
6.5.3 Developing Positions and Identifying Key Issues of Concern 126
6.5.3.1 Building Trust 127
6.5.3.2 Identifying Holders of Traditional Knowledge and Beneficiaries 127
6.5.3.3 Protecting San Culture and Knowledge 129
6.5.4 The CSIR-San Benefit-Sharing Agreement 130
6.6 Hoodia Booms and Busts: 2001–2006 132
6.7 Negotiating a Benefit-Sharing Agreement with the Southern African Hoodia Growers Association 135
6.8 Implementation Challenges 137
6.8.1 Decision-Making and the Distribution of Benefits 137
6.8.2 Regional Differences in Benefit-Sharing Policies 139
6.8.3 Hoodia Trade and Markets 140
6.9 Conclusion 141
References 144
7 Policies for Sharing Benefits from Hoodia 148
7.1 Introduction 149
7.2 ABS Regulation in Southern Africa 149
7.3 Bioprospecting or Biotrade? 157
7.4 Regional Coherence in ABS 157
7.5 Linkages Between Hoodia Conservation, Trade and ABS 158
7.6 Ownership of Hoodia Genetic Resources 160
7.7 Conclusion 160
References 161
8 The Struggle for Indigenous Peoples’ Land Rights: The Case of Namibia 163
8.1 Introduction 164
8.2 Land Reform in Namibia 166
8.3 ‘Kill the Tribe to Build the Nation’ 168
8.4 Customary Law and Communal Areas 169
8.5 Aboriginal Title 172
8.6 Aboriginal Title and the San: From ‘Civilized’ to ‘Socially Organized’ 174
8.7 Khwe San Land Claims 176
8.8 Idealization of Indigeneity 177
8.9 Conclusion 179
References 179
9 Speaking for the San: Challenges for Representative Institutions 184
9.1 Introduction 185
9.2 San Institutions Prior to Modernity 186
9.3 Marginalization of San Peoples 187
9.3.1 A Hunter-Gatherer World View? 188
9.3.2 Poverty and Poor Health? 189
9.3.3 Collective Trauma As a Cause of Societal Problems? 189
9.4 San Modern Institutions 191
9.4.1 San Development and Support NGOs 192
9.4.2 San Representative Organizations 196
9.5 Some Reflections and Concerns from the Field 201
9.5.1 Leadership 201
9.5.2 Organizational Structures 203
9.6 Discussion and Conclusion 205
References 206
10 Trading Traditional Knowledge: San Perspectives from South Africa, Namibia and Botswana 210
10.1 Introduction 211
10.2 Methodology 212
10.2.1 Scenario Survey 212
10.2.2 San Communities 214
10.3 Perceptions of Commodification 216
10.3.1 Scenario Surveys: San Responses to the Commodification of Medicinal Knowledge 216
10.3.2 Perceptions of the Commercialization of the Hoodia from a Cultural Perspective 220
10.4 Conclusion 222
References 223
11 Putting Intellectual Property Rights into Practice: Experiences from the San 227
11.1 Introduction 227
11.2 International and National Intellectual Property Rights 229
11.3 Vulnerability of Traditional or Indigenous Knowledge 233
11.4 Breach of Intellectual Property Rights and the Use of Law 235
11.4.1 Intellectual Property and Research 235
11.4.2 Intellectual Property and the Media 236
11.4.3 Intellectual Property, Music and Dance 237
11.4.4 Rock Art and Cultural Symbols 238
11.4.5 Art and Crafts 239
11.4.6 Traditional Knowledge of Biodiversity 240
11.4.7 Contract Law 242
11.5 Conclusion 242
References 243
12 Sharing Benefits Fairly: Decision-Making and Governance 246
12.1 Introduction 247
12.2 Decision-Making and the Democratic Model 248
12.3 Traditional Decision-Making Among the San 250
12.4 Decision-Making in the Negotiation and Implementation of San- Hoodia Benefit-Sharing Agreements 254
12.4.1 Negotiations Between the San and the CSIR 254
12.4.2 Establishment of the San- Hoodia Benefit-Sharing Trust 258
12.4.3 Receiving and Disbursing Funds 260
12.5 Challenges and Conclusion 262
12.5.1 Tension of Time Frames 262
12.5.2 Lack of Adequate Resources for San Negotiating Team 263
12.5.3 Continued Lack of Resources for Trust 263
12.5.4 Clarity on Roles and Responsiblities 264
12.5.5 Lack of Success in Local Community Governance 265
12.5.6 Cross-Country Cooperation 266
12.6 Appendix: Methods and Approach 268
12.6.1 Planning and organization 268
12.6.1.1 Selection of Workshop Participants 268
12.6.1.2 Logistics 269
12.6.1.3 Costs 269
12.6.2 Semi-Structured Interviews with the San- Hoodia Trust 269
12.6.3 Analysis 270
12.6.4 Focus Groups 270
References 271
Part III: Reflections 273
13 The Role of Scientists and the State in Benefit Sharing: Comparing Institutional Support for the San and Kani 274
13.1 Introduction 275
13.2 Brief Overview of Kani Case 276
13.3 Key Issues for Comparison 277
13.3.1 Sensitivity of Scientists 277
13.3.2 Role of the State 279
13.3.3 Institutional Framework 280
13.4 Concluding Remarks 282
References 283
14 The Law is not Enough: Protecting Indigenous Peopls' Rights Against Mining Interests in the Philippines 284
14.1 Violation of Indigenous Peoples' Human Rights 286
14.1.1 Background to the Case 287
14.2 Open Season for Large-Scale Mining 288
14.3 The Legal Framework of FPIC 289
14.4 Resistance 291
14.5 Comparative Insights with the San- Hoodia Case 292
14.6 Contextualizing the FPIC Political Problematique 293
14.7 Common Lessons 294
14.7.1 Collective Action 294
14.7.2 Innovation in Democratic Work for Indigenous Peoples’ Rights 295
14.8 Conclusion 295
References 296
15 Benefit Sharing is No Solution to Development: Experiences from Mining on Aboriginal Land in Australia 298
15.1 Introduction 299
15.2 Brief Background on Indigenous People in Australia 300
15.3 Historical Genesis: Miners, Indigenous People and Benefit Sharing 302
15.4 Indigenous Leverage in Mining Agreements 304
15.5 Emerging Issues of Equity and Effectiveness 306
15.5.1 On What Basis Are Benefit-Sharing Agreements Made? 307
15.5.2 To Whom Should Payments Under Benefit-Sharing Agreements Be Distributed? 308
15.5.3 How Should Payments Made Under Benefit-Sharing Agreements Be Utilized? 309
15.5.4 Who Should Be Responsible for Decision-Making? 309
15.6 Comparative Implications for the San Hoodia Case 311
15.7 Conclusion 314
References 315
16 Human Research Ethics Guidelines as a Basis for Consent and Benefit Sharing: A Canadian Perspective 316
16.1 Introduction 317
16.2 Similarities and Differences 317
16.3 Researchers as Agents of Appropriation 320
16.3.1 Human Research Ethics as a Basis for Biodiversity Policy 322
16.4 Conclusion 324
References 326
17 The Limitations of Good Intent: Problems of Representation and Informed Consent in the Maya ICBG Project in Chiapas, Mexico 328
17.1 Introduction 329
17.2 The MAYA ICBG 329
17.3 Geographic, Cultural and Sociodemographic Political Context 330
17.4 Indigenous Partnership and Prior Informed Consent: Legitimacy vs Legality 332
17.4.1 International Regulation: Convention on Biological Diversity 332
17.4.2 Mexican National Regulations 332
17.5 Negotiating Prior Informed Consent with Communities 333
17.6 Intellectual Property Rights and Benefit Sharing 334
17.7 Opposition to the Project 335
17.8 Comparison with San Case 338
References 342
Part IV: Conclusions and Recommendations 345
18 Conclusions and Recommendations: Towards Best Practice for Community Consent and Benefit Sharing 347
18.1 Introduction 347
18.2 Land: The Foundation of Indigenous Peoples’ Rights 347
18.3 Justice and the Convention on Biological Diversity 349
18.4 Commodification 350
18.5 Prior Informed Consent 351
18.6 Identification of Traditional Knowledge Holders and Relevant Authorities 353
18.7 Capacity Development 354
18.8 Managing the Expectations of Bioprospecting 355
18.9 Intercultural Encounters and Governance 357
18.10 Policies and Laws for Indigenous Peoples, Access and Benefit sharing 358
18.11 The Law is Not Enough 359
18.12 Conclusion 361
References 362
Index 363