Encyclopedia of Migration

Dr. Ueda is a historian of the United States and of migration. He has explored global migration and its effects on societies and regions in Postwar Immigrant America (St. Martin's Press) and Crosscurrents: Atlantic and Pacific Migration in the Making of a Global America (Oxford University Press). He studied the role of local migrations in the rise of public education in Avenues to Adulthood (Cambridge University Press). Dr. Ueda was a research editor of the Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (awarded the Waldo Leland Prize of the American Historical Association) and co-editor (with Mary C. Waters and Helen Marrow) of New Americans (Harvard University Press). He is also co-editor of the Journal of Interdisciplinary History (MIT Press). Dr. Ueda's research has been supported by fellowships from the Woodrow Wilson International Center, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Council of Learned Societies, and the Charles Warren Center at Harvard. A member of the Tufts History Department faculty since 1981, Dr. Ueda has been a visiting professor at Harvard University and Brandeis University. He is co-chair of a consortium, the Inter-University Committee on International Migration at the MIT Center for International Studies.Dr. Bean is a social scientist with 35 years of experience as a researcher, teacher, administrator and public policy analyst. His PhD is in sociology and his dissertation was written in social psychology. As a graduate student at Duke University, in addition to his work in sociology and social psychology (with Alan C. Kerckhoff, Kurt Back and Edward E. Jones), he took courses in demography and worked on research projects for three distinguished demographers (Reynolds Farley, Nathan Keyfitz and Hal Winsborough), all of whom subsequently became foundational leaders in population studies at prestigious universities in the United States (Michigan, Harvard and Wisconsin respectively). As the founding Director of both the Population Studies Center and the Immigration Policy Research Center at The Urban Institute in Washington, DC, Dr. Bean has also conducted work in and developed extensive knowledge about the economics of population and migration. He is currently Chancellor's Professor of Sociology and Economics at the University of California, Irvine. Dr. Brown is a tenured Associate Professor of Sociology at the University of California, Irvine. She is a sociologist/demographer whose areas of specialization are immigration, residential segregation and urban sociology. As a result of conducting research in these areas, she has also developed considerable expertise in geography and urban policy. In addition to her academic and research specializations, she also brings more than fifteen years of journalistic experience as a reporter and editor starting when she was on the staff of the Harvard Crimson and including nearly twelve years with the St. Louis-Post Dispatch.

TOPICS AND SUBTOPICS: (first draft)








Basic Outlines of Migration






Migration comprises a foundational unit of the study of any population. Measured in conjunction with births and deaths, migration into and out of any place determines the ultimate size of the population. Migration is a specialized form of moving that involves distinct components of distance, duration and residence. Conceptually, migration is often differentiated into internal and international flows. Internal migration historically has consisted in large part of continued urbanization of a previously rural population, but it may also show counterstreams moving from cities to suburbs.



International vs. internal








Distance and activity space, duration, and national versus local boundaries.







Change in circulation





Partial vs. total displacement migration







International as product of Westphalian system of nation-states







Growth of regulation in 20th century





Growth in typologies of migrants





Diasporas may exist without nation-state identification










Kinds of migration








Primitive, or nomadic





Voluntary, or agent-based, within large groups or clans or small-scale, as individuals or households







Authorized, legal, documented





Unauthorized, illegal, undocumented; "aliens"







Involuntary, or forced, impelled.







Displacement, warfare; environmental degradation and disaster





Human trafficking, slavery





Refugees, asylees







Circular, or returning migration, sojourner vs. settler





Step migration








Non-migration










International: students, tourists, business travelers; foreign-born vs. immigrants





Internal: Recurrent movement (commuting, daily crossings, seasonal work)
















II. Measurement of Migration and Statistical Methodology









This topic covers the general demographic and statistical concepts underpinning migration research. Initially, migration research followed a standardized set of concepts and measurements derived from demographic research and often dependent upon the geographical units within which data are collected. However, the research has expanded into multiple fields with many methodologies, both qualitative and quantitative.



Demographic concepts








Flows vs. stocks







Areas of origin and destination





Emigration and immigration





Differential migration







Gross and net migration





Components of change (residual) estimation; forward survival.





Status and propensity rates, probabilities, in-migration, out-migration rates, net migration





Estimates and population projections





Distance, distance decay, gravity models





Efficiency: ratio of streams to counterstreams





Migration histories








Economic and sociological models








Econometric models and general models of inequality, within and between cities or countries





Multivariate regression analysis





Ethnographies








Spatial analysis








Geographic Information Systems, with database of attribute information, boundary files, digital map layers, analysis tools and user interface.





Political and data units: e.g. wards, counties, metropolitan areas, states, provinces, nations











III. Migration Data









Migration data vary widely across countries, both in terms of scope of collection and basic understanding of the definition of migration. This section examines the types of data collection instruments and their components.



Censuses








Frequency, coverage, de facto vs. de jure, usual residence, field checking, coverage error and content, net and differential undercounts, continuous measurement, migration questions, dual-system estimation, demographic analysis





Types of files and unit coverage: e.g. region, division, state, county, minor civil division/townships, places, census tracts, block groups, blocks.








Administrative records








Population registers, universal and partial; ports of entry and/or exit, passports and visas issued, immigration yearbooks, tax records, social welfare/security records, city directories, postal stops, school enrollments, construction permits, utility usage.








Surveys








Sampling issues, sample bias, panel studies, attrition.








Other sources








Naturalizations and change of migration status





Apprehensions and deportations; denaturalizations





Asylee petitions, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees














IV. Migration Theories









No one theoretical perspective dominates the study of migration. Rather, multiple social science perspectives, all relatively new, compete with one another. This section will cover each theory and the underlying social, cultural and economic concepts.



Evolution of migration theories








Ravenstein's laws





Intervening opportunities (Stouffer)





Intervening obstacles (Lee)



Demographic transition





Population pressure





"Push-pull"








Classical and neoclassical economics








Macro- and micro-theory





Regional labor supply and demand





Equilibrium wage markets





Opportunity costs





Marginal productivity of labor





Rational-actor and human capital models





Factor mobility





Discounted net returns over time





Expected earnings gap vs. absolute wage differential








New household economics








Credit and risk markets, insurance for crops, unemployment and retirement





Household-level decision making





Relative deprivation





Migration and intermediate investment








Labor-market segmentation








Structural inflation and status (occupational) hierarchies





Reference wages





Economic dualism and bifurcated labor markets; primary and secondary sectors





Ethnic enclaves and enclave economies





Demographic shifts in labor supply








World systems








Historical-structuralist view of uneven development; dependency theory





Core-periphery dichotomy





Brain drain





Land consolidation and agricultural displacement





Export-processing zones





Cultural linkages





Global cities and hourglass economy








Structuration; institutional theory








"Structure-agency problematic" (Giddens)





Intermediary institutions connect potential migrants to jobs








Social networks








Role of information





Chain migration, "auspices" of migration (Tilly and Brown)





Forms of fungible capital: social, human, financial, cultural















Enforceable trust





Strong and weak ties















Utility maximization








Cumulative causation








Social context of migration





Culture of migration





Social labeling of jobs





Migration hump, density function, cumulative density function








Political economy and state structure








Hegemonic stability in a geopolitical order<




Labor importation














V. Migrant Selectivity









Particular types of people are more likely to migrate than others. This section describes these typologies and the theoretical and practical considerations of migrants.



Adjustment causes vs. induced causes of residential mobility (Clark)








Adjustment: Housing/tenure, neighborhood effects, physical environment, public services, and accessibility, commuting





Induced: employment, job change, retirement





Induced: life cycle change







Household formation, change in marital status





Change in household size





Gender, age differentials










Place utility








Depends on stress threshold function for mobility decision





Stream of information





Residential preferences





Field theory approach to searching








Return migration








Duration-dependence





Socioeconomic mobility





Chronic movers





Seasonal dependence, snowbirds








Health of immigrants








Paradox of declining immigrant health in wealthier destination countries





Fertility changes





Reference group changes














VI. Urbanization









For more than a century, the dominant trend in worldwide migration has been urbanization, so that for the first time in history, more than half of the world's population lives in an urban area. This section describes the aspects of urban growth related to migration.



Urban transition








Rural-urban continuum













Megalopolis/urban agglomeration





Transnational urban systems








Degree and pace of urbanization








Transportation, commuting costs; natural evolution theory





Fiscal, social stresses













Land conversion, water availability, infrastructure








Primate cities, megacities, global cities








Rank-size rule, balanced urban system








Density










Crowding, slums, squatters, gentrification





Central cities, suburbs, exurbs





Urban sprawl, multiple nuclei





NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard) movements










Theoretical perspectives of urbanization








Chicago School and human ecology, concentric zones, sector models; edge cities





Structural approach; uneven development (Harvey, Lefebvre); circuits of capital





Los Angeles school; post-Marxian, postmodernist epistemologies





Political economy and urban growth machines





Urban economics







Location theories (e.g. least-cost, economic base, incubator, industrial specializations and nodal metros; maquiladoras; export processing zones, employment poles)



Consumer functions, central place theory, retail gravitation
















VII. Theories of Incorporation









This section describes the best-known theories of assimilation and incorporation.



Acculturation








Language acquisition, bi- or multilingualism, Fishman model of language acquisition





Customs, values and practices





Consonant and dissonant








Assimilation








Classical/canonical accounts: race relations cycle, structural assimilation, melting pot (triple melting pot), social distance, social networks, ethnic association, ethclass





Newer accounts: "Anglo-conformity," straight-line vs. bumpy line assimilation, neo-institutionalism, incorporation, immigrant generation.








Multiculturalism and pluralism








Ethnic construction and reconstruction, panethnicity





Boundary formation, bounded solidarity





Symbolic ethnicity; mosaic metaphor





Visible minorities








Ethnic Disadvantage








Ethnic hierarchy and structural disadvantage





Mainstream, "core" society








Segmented assimilation








Divergent paths





Downward mobility, oppositional subcultures, neighborhood effects





Selective acculturation, ethnic retention








Transnationalism








Globalization and transnational cultural studies





Transmigrants vs. diasporas














VIII. Kinds of Incorporation









Immigrants adjust to their destination society in multiple dimensions. This section expounds on the variety of responses to immigration by immigrants and the host society.



Identity formation








Public opinion toward immigration,







Negative: xenophobia, alien, prejudice, racism, self vs. Other, scapegoating





Positive: Model minority, "American Dream"







Multiracial identification; phenotype





Selective identification





Hyphenated identification








Socio-cultural incorporation








Religious and linguistic change





Ancestry studies





Second-generation revolt





Endogamy and exogamy rates








Economic incorporation








Opportunity structure: blocked mobility, hourglass economy





Ethnic economy





Educational opportunity: affirmative action








Spatial assimilation








Place stratification vs. spatial integration





Segregation mechanisms: steering, redlining, mortgage discrimination





Residential preferences





Home ownership and suburbanization








Political incorporation








Non-citizen: legalization, naturalization, civic association





Citizen: voting, political participation






<

Cultural citizenship









IX. Migration Policy









Policy strongly affects both internal and international migration. This section describes current and past policies across a range of countries. It includes legislation, legal cases, specific government offices and informal policy practices.



International migration








Entrance policies







Health and literacy tests





Quotas







Visa requirements, types of visas







Permanent vs. temporary visa types



Priorities for admittance, employment categories





Family reunification and sponsorship

















Exit policies







Deportation and denaturalization





Criminalization of immigrants





Residence requirements





Incorporation policies, job banks and civics and language training





Citizenship







Jus soli vs. jus sanguinis





Dual citizenship







Guest workers







Specific flows, e.g. Gastarbeiter, braceros





Repatriation





Restrictions on employment







Control of immigration







Border policies





Bureaucracies







Migrants' rights







Civil protections





Secondary and tertiary education; tuition





Access to jobs










Internal migration








Home ownership, mortgage interest tax deductions, lending practices, housing institutions





Transportation: commuting, highway systems and public transportation





Job training, job transfers and tax policy





Residency requirements (e.g. hukou in China) and floating populations














X. Global Institutions







A large body of literature covers the global economic and political institutions that enable transfer of capital, investment, and the movement of people. This section covers some of the institutional actors and treaties that have enabled global movement of goods and people, from the Pax Romana to the Peace of Westphalia to the United Nations, the International Monetary Fund and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.







XI. Fiscal and Economic Aspects of Migration









This section explores the effects of immigration on receiving and sending countries, to the economy as a whole and as a net fiscal burden at the national and regional levels.










Remittances







Multiplier (second round) effects





Short-run income effects (income elasticities) and income distribution





Consumption vs. investment uses





Repatriation of foreign earnings





Community development

















Economic effects







Returns to scale





Wages of natives





Productivity of labor and capital







Revenues and expenditures







Welfare expenditures





Tax streams


















XII. Major Migration Streams









A comprehensive account of migration will include the major migrations of both historical and contemporary times. These will include international settlements and internal displacements.



Receiving Countries








Colonization: USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Siberia, South Africa, Israel, Latin America





Contemporary labor importation: Europe, Japan, Middle East, Africa (refugees)








Sending countries








Traditional: Europe, China, India, Philippines





Contemporary: East Asia, South Asia, Africa, Latin America, Caribbean








Prehistoric migrations








Homo erectus, Neanderthals, Cro-Magnon





Paleo-Indian





Indo-European





Aboriginal seafarers








Early historical migration








Mediterranean (e.g. Phoenician, Greek, Roman)





Celtic



Bantu





Lapita in New Guinea





Turk and Mongol, steppe peoples





Huns and those they displaced: Goths and Vandals





Anglo-Saxon





Arab





Viking in western Europe and Russia





Norman





Germans eastward





Toltec and Aztec





African slaves








Historical diasporas:








Jews





Roma





Italians and other Europeans





Chinese





Armenians














XIII. Other