Research Methods in Physical Activity

Jerry Thomas, EdD, retired in 2016 from the University of North Texas, where he served as a professor and dean of the College of Education. He has authored more than 200 publications, 120 of which are in refereed journals. In 1999 SHAPE America named him the C.H. McCloy Lecturer for his production of research throughout his career. Thomas has been editor in chief of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport and a reviewer for most major research journals in kinesiology and numerous journals in psychology. He has also served as president of the National Academy of Kinesiology (NAK), founding president of American Kinesiology Association (AKA), AAHPERD Research Consortium (now SHAPE America), and North American Society for Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA). In 1990 he was named an AAHPERD Alliance Scholar and in 2003 was named a NASPSPA Distinguished Scholar based on lifetime achievement in research. Thomas received an honorary doctorate of science from his undergraduate institution, Furman University, in the spring of 2015. Philip Martin, PhD, is a professor emeritus in the department of kinesiology at Iowa State University. Previously, he served as the head of the department of kinesiology at Penn State and as chair of exercise science and physical education at Arizona State University in Tempe. Martin’s research activities have addressed mechanical factors influencing the economy and efficiency of walking, running, and cycling. He has authored 80 research articles and book chapters and presented at regional, national, and international professional meetings. Martin is an active member and fellow of the American Society of Biomechanics (ASB), the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), and the National Academy of Kinesiology (NAK). He serves on the board of directors and the executive board of the American Kinesiology Association (AKA). He is a former president of the NAK and the ABS and former vice president of the AKA. He has also served on the editorial board of the International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, as an associate editor for the Journal of Applied Biomechanics, and as a biomechanics section editor for Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. Additionally, he served on the scientific advisory committee for the U.S. Olympic Committee Sports Medicine Council. Jennifer L. Etnier, PhD, is a Julia Taylor Morton Distinguished Professor and chair of the department of kinesiology at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, where she has received the Health and Human Performance Teaching Award and UNCG Alumni Teaching Excellence Award. Etnier’s research focuses on the cognitive benefits of physical activity. She has authored over 90 peer-reviewed research articles and contributed to over 20 book chapters and editorials. She is also the author of two books for the lay public focused on the youth sport experience: Bring Your “A” Game and Coaching for the Love of the Game. Etnier is a past president of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA), where she had previously served on the executive board. She is a fellow of the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and the National Academy of Kinesiology (NAK), where she also served as member-at-large. Etnier serves on the editorial board for the Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology and the Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, where she previously served as editor in chief. Steve Silverman, EdD, is a professor of education and senior advisor to the provost for research preparation at Teachers College at Columbia University. He has taught and written about research methods for more than 30 years and has conducted research on teaching in physical education focusing on how children learn motor skill and develop attitudes. He has published more than 80 research articles in addition to many books and book chapters. Silverman is a fellow and past president of the National Academy of Kinesiology (NAK) and the AAHPERD Research Consortium (now SHAPE America) and a fellow of the American Educational Research Association (AERA). A former coeditor of the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education and former editor in chief of the Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Silverman was an AERA Physical Education Scholar Lecturer, a Research Consortium Scholar Lecturer, and Weiss Lecturer and Alliance Scholar for AAHPERD. In 2010, he was inducted into the Kinesiology and Health Education Hall of Honor at the University of Texas at Austin.

Part I. Overview of the Research Process

Chapter 1. Introduction to Research in Physical Activity
The Nature of Research
Unscientific Versus Scientific Methods of Problem-Solving
Alternative Models of Research
Types of Research
Overview of the Research Process
Parts of a Thesis: A Reflection on the Steps in the Research Process
Summary

Chapter 2. Developing the Problem and Using the Literature
Identifying the Research Problem
Purpose of the Literature Review
Basic Literature Search Strategies
Steps in the Literature Search
Summary

Chapter 3. Presenting the Problem
Choosing the Title
Developing the Introduction: Background and Justification
Stating the Research Purpose
Presenting the Research Hypothesis
Operationally Defining Terms
Basic Assumptions, Delimitations, and Limitations
Justifying the Significance of the Study
Differences Between the Thesis and the Research Article
Summary

Chapter 4. Formulating the Method
How to Present Methodological Details
Why Planning the Methods Is Important
Two Principles for Planning Experiments
Describing Participants
Selecting and Describing Instruments
Describing Procedures
Describing Design and Analysis
Establishing Cause and Effect
Interaction of Participants, Measurements, and Treatments
Summary

Chapter 5. Ethical Issues in Research and Scholarship
Seven Areas of Research Misconduct
Ethical Issues Regarding Copyright
Model for Considering Scientific Misconduct
Working With Faculty
Protecting Human Participants
Protecting Animal Subjects
Summary

Part II. Statistical and Measurement Concepts in Research

Chapter 6. Becoming Acquainted With Statistical Concepts
Why We Need Statistics
Use of Computers in Statistical Analysis
Description and Inference Are Not Statistical Techniques
Ways to Select a Sample
Ways to Assign Participants to Groups
Post Hoc Justifications
Difficulty of Random Sampling and Assignment: How Good Must It Be?
Measures of Central Tendency and Variability
Basic Concepts of Statistical Techniques
Data for Use in the Remaining Statistical Chapters
Summary

Chapter 7. Statistical Issues in Research Planning and Evaluation
Probability
Hypothesis Testing
Meaningfulness (Effect Size)
Power
Using Information in the Context of the Study
Summary

Chapter 8. Relationships of Variables
What Correlational Research Investigates
Understanding the Nature of Correlation
What the Coefficient of Correlation Means
Using Correlation for Prediction
Partial Correlation
Semipartial Correlation
Procedures for Multiple Regression
Logistic Regression
Discriminant Function Analysis
Moderators and Mediators
Multivariate Forms of Correlation
Summary

Chapter 9. Differences Between Groups
How Statistics Test Differences
Types of t Tests
Interpreting t
Relationship of t and r
Analysis of Variance
Analysis of Covariance
Experiment-Wise Error Rate
Understanding Multivariate Techniques
Summary

Chapter 10. Nonparametric Techniques
Chi Square: Testing the Observed Versus the Expected
Procedures for Rank-Order Data
Correlation
Differences Between Groups
Summary

Chapter 11. Measuring Research Variables
Validity
Reliability
Methods of Establishing Reliability
Intertester Reliability (Objectivity)
Standard Error of Measurement
Using Standard Scores to Compare Performance
Measuring Movement
Measuring Written Responses
Measuring Affective Behavior
Scales for Measurement
Measuring Knowledge
Item Response Theory
Summary

Part III. Types of Research

Chapter 12. Sociohistorical Process in Sport Studies
Development of the Discipline
Theory and Sport History
Relationship Between Theory and Method
Research Sources
Research Topics
Research Design
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Research Findings
Exemplary Studies in Sport History
Summary

Chapter 13. Philosophical Research in Physical Activity
Identifying the Purposes of Philosophical Research
Philosophical Inquiry Continuum
Locating a Research Problem
Analyzing a Research Problem
Summary
Appendix

Chapter 14. Research Synthesis (Meta-Analysis and Systematic Reviews)
Purpose of Research Synthesis
Presenting Effect Size Data
Summary

Chapter 15. Surveys
Questionnaires
Additional Considerations for Online Surveys
Delphi Method
Personal Interviews
Normative Surveys
Summary

Chapter 16. Other Descriptive Research Methods
Developmental Research
Case Studies
Observational Research
Unobtrusive Research Techniques
Correlational Research
Summary

Chapter 17. Physical Activity Epidemiology Research
U.S. National Physical Activity Guidelines and Plan
Observational Versus Experimental Research
What Is Physical Activity Epidemiology?
Definitions of Physical Activity and Its Components
Assessment of Physical Activity
Epidemiological Study Designs
Reading and Interpreting a Physical Activity Epidemiological Study
Summary

Chapter 18. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research
Sources of Invalidity
Threats to Internal Validity
Threats to External Validity
Controlling Threats to Internal Validity
Controlling Threats to External Validity
Types of Designs
Summary

Chapter 19. Qualitative Research
Procedures in Qualitative Research
Data Analysis
Concluding Remarks
Summary

Chapter 20. Mixed-Methods Research
Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
Designing Mixed-Methods Research
Issues in Mixed-Methods Research
Examples of Mixed-Methods Research
Summary

Part IV. Writing the Research Report

Chapter 21. Completing the Research Process
Research Proposal
Thesis and Dissertation Proposals
Advisor and Dissertation Committee
The Good Scholar Must Research and Write
Scientific Writing
First Things Are Sometimes Best Done Last
Developing a Good Introduction
Describing the Methods
The Proposal Process
Preparing and Presenting Qualitative Research Proposals
Writing Proposals for Granting Agencies
Submitting Internal Proposals
Completing Your Thesis or Dissertation
Results and Discussion
Handling Multiple Experiments in a Single Report
Using Tables and Figures
Summary

Chapter 22. Ways of Reporting Research
Basic Writing Guidelines
A Brief Word About Acknowledgments
Thesis and Dissertation Format: Traditional Versus Journal
Helpful Hints for Successful Journal Writing
Revising Research Papers
Writing Abstracts
Making Oral and Poster Presentations
Summary

Appendix. Statistical Tables