Wastewater Management Through Aquaculture (eBook)

Professor (Dr) B.  B. Jana, a Fellow of National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi  as well as some other prestigious Academies in India and  recipient of the Joy Govinda Memorial Award of the Asiatic Society, is Emeritus Fellow  and Academic Advisor  in the International Centre for Ecological Engineering, University of Kalyani, West Bengal India. He did his doctorate on aquatic ecology and microbiology and worked as Post Doctoral Fellow of the then USSR and DAAD Visiting Fellow in the University of Hamburg, Germany. He has published several monographs, books and contributed chapters in UNESCO-Encyclopedia and has published over 235  papers in peer reviewed journals and  supervised 32 Ph. D students. As a Principal Investigator, he  is the recipient of many national and  international projects funded by European Commission, GTZ and TTZ, ICAR, UGC, CSIR, DST, DBT, DOEn and Govt. of India, etc.  His domain of research includes wastewater aquaculture, ecological sanitation, eco-restoration, ecological engineering, microbial nutrient cycling, integrated organic farming, impact of global warming and climate change in aquaculture, water conservation, etc. A Board Member of the International Ecological Engineering Society, Switzerland and editorial board member of several important journals, Professor Jana has extensively travelled abroad and chaired and/or participated and invited speakers in many International conferences held in many countries of the world. At present, his passion is eco-sanitation particularly for the use of human urine as alternative chemical fertilizer.  One of his papers published in Ecological Engineering has been highlighted in the News@Nature.com . His another current publications on human urine has also been highlighted and covered in IndoUS Business Journal Aug 28, 2016 which reads as: Now human urine as an organic alternative to chemical fertilizers.  As a secretary, his mission has been focused on  outreach programme and extension activities at the grass root level which are being implemented through his own founded NGO, KALYANI SHINE INDIA known as Centre for Environmental Protection & Human Resource Development aimed at alleviating rural poverty  and protection and conservation of  biodiversity, environment and water resources.Dr. R. N. Mandal did his M. Sc. and Ph. D. in Botany from University of Calcutta. Presently, Dr. Mandal has been in the position of Principal Scientist in Aquaculture Production and Environemt Division (APED), Indian Council of Agricultural Research - Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (ICAR-CIFA), Rahara, Kolkata, West Bengal, India. Dr. Mandal is now working on wastewater fed aquaculture as the Principal Investigator in sewage fed aquaculture farm in Rahara and deals with different aspects of sewage fed aquaculture in farmers’ field in East Kolkata Wetlands (EKW). He has been working on the management of both aquatic and wetlands plants, including utility of beneficial flora and removal of nuisance ones, in the perspective of aquaculture. He has also guided students for their Masters dissertation. He has published a number of articles in referred scientific journals of high repute.Dr. P. Jayasankar, M. Sc. and Ph. D., has spent 31 years as a researcher in fisheries, including fishery biology & fish stock assessment, phenotypic/genotypic stock structure analysis, evaluation of genetic heterogeneity and molecular taxonomy/DNA barcoding (fish, shellfish and cetaceans), genetic linkage mapping & QTL, genomic selection, molecular marker based fish hybrid identification and transgenics. Recently, Dr. Jayasankar has taken up research on environmental DNA (eDNA). He has published over 150 peer reviewed papers, book, books edited and book chapters. He has also guided 8 students for their Masters and Ph D dissertation. As a research and administration manager (ex-Director, ICAR-CIFA, Bhubaneswar, India), he contributed towards extension of freshwater aquaculture technology and established linkages among researchers and the industry.

Foreword 5
Preface 7
Acknowledgments 12
Contents 13
Contributors 15
About the Editors 18
Acronyms 20
Part I: Understanding the Fundamentals of Soil-Water Interactions and Biogeochemical Nutrient Dynamics 23
Chapter 1: Understanding the Soil-Water Interactions for Sustainable Ecosystem Services in Aquatic Environments 24
1.1 Introduction 25
1.2 Ecology and Productivity of Wetlands 26
1.3 Structure of Wetland Soils 28
1.3.1 Soil Formation 29
1.3.2 Soil Composition 29
1.3.3 Clay Particles 30
1.3.4 The Top Sediment 31
1.4 Sediment Composition 31
1.4.1 Organic Matter 31
1.4.2 Humus 32
1.4.3 Humic Acid 32
1.5 Acid Sulfate Soils 33
1.6 Soils in Pond Construction 34
1.7 Physical Properties of Soil 34
1.7.1 Oxidation-Reduction at Soil-Water Interface 34
1.8 Chemical Properties of Soil 34
1.9 Soil-Water Exchange 35
1.10 Microbial Activities 36
1.11 Soil and Biological Production 41
1.12 Effects of Aquatic Animals on the Soil 43
1.13 Soil Management 44
1.14 Role of Pond Sediments in Carbon Cycle 45
1.15 Conclusions 46
References 47
Chapter 2: Biogeochemical Cycling Bacteria and Nutrient Dynamics in Waste Stabilization Pond System 50
2.1 Introduction 51
2.2 Characteristics of Wastewater 52
2.3 Degradation of Sewage in Wastewater System 53
2.4 Nutrient Dynamics in Wastewater 54
2.4.1 Role of Heterotrophic Bacteria in Degradation of Sewage Water 54
2.4.2 Nitrogen Cycle in Wastewater 56
2.4.2.1 Nitrogen Fixation 56
2.4.2.2 Ammonification 58
2.4.2.3 Nitrification 58
2.4.2.4 Denitrification 61
2.4.3 Phosphorus Cycle 63
2.4.4 Carbon Cycle 66
2.5 Facultative Pond Dynamicity 67
2.6 System Reclamation 68
2.7 Conclusions 70
References 70
Part II: Culture Practices of Wastewater Fed Aquaculture 74
Chapter 3: Global Prospects for Safe Wastewater Reuse Through Aquaculture 75
3.1 Introduction 76
3.2 Prospects for Rational Design and Participatory and Integrated Planning 79
3.3 Alternative Reuses Paradigms to Mitigate Health Risks and Concerns 81
3.4 Value Addition Through Cutting-Edge Biorefinery Approaches 86
3.5 Enhancing Prospects for Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture 87
3.6 Conclusions 87
References 89
Chapter 4: Waste System: Its Utility and Analyses in Aquaculture 93
4.1 Introduction 94
4.2 Rationale of Wastewater Reuse 94
4.3 Nutrients and Contaminants in Wastewater 95
4.4 Wastewater Systems in Aquaculture 96
4.4.1 Use of Untreated Waste and Wastewater 97
4.4.2 Treated Wastewater in Aquaculture 97
4.4.3 Constructed Wetlands in Waste Wastewater Reuse 98
4.4.4 Macrophyte-Based Reclamation 98
4.4.5 Indian Wastewater Aquaculture Systems 99
4.4.5.1 East Calcutta Wetlands Model 99
4.4.5.2 Modified East Calcutta Wetlands Models 100
4.5 Production Pathway in Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture Systems 101
4.6 Emerging Areas of Allied Activities in Wastewater Aquaculture Systems 102
4.6.1 Biofloc Technology 102
4.6.2 Hydroponics 103
4.7 Analyses of Reusing Wastewater 103
4.7.1 Economic Impact 103
4.7.2 Ecological Impact 104
4.7.3 Analyses of Human Health Issues 104
4.7.4 Microbial Analyses of Fish 105
4.7.5 Chemical Analyses of Fish 106
4.8 Waste Systems and Safety Issues 106
4.9 Conclusions 108
References 109
Chapter 5: Recycling of Sewage in Aquaculture: Decadal Technical Advancement 114
5.1 Introduction 115
5.2 A Brief History of Research Activities 116
5.3 Treatments of Sewage 117
5.3.1 Mechanical Treatments 118
5.3.2 Biological Treatments 119
5.3.2.1 By Duckweeds 119
5.3.2.2 By Macrophytes 119
5.4 Optimization of Physico-chemical Parameters 120
5.5 Properties of Sewage 120
5.5.1 Physico-chemical Properties 120
5.5.2 Microbial Load 121
5.6 Sewage Application and Nutrient Recovery 122
5.7 Fish Farming 123
5.7.1 Pond Management 123
5.7.1.1 Pond Preparation 124
5.7.1.2 Pond Manuring 125
5.7.2 Sewage-Fed Aquaculture 125
5.7.2.1 Species Selection and Their Food Habits 126
5.7.2.2 Quality Seeds 127
5.7.2.3 Stocking Density and Species Ratio 127
5.7.2.4 Farming Methods 128
5.7.2.5 Fish Production and Harvest 128
5.7.3 Biotic Communities 130
5.8 Risk Assessment 131
5.8.1 Microbial Load 132
5.8.2 Heavy Metals and Toxicity 132
5.9 Conclusions 133
References 134
Chapter 6: Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture in East Kolkata Wetlands: State of the Art and Measures to Protect Biodiversity 138
6.1 Introduction 139
6.2 Facts 140
6.2.1 Location and Weather 140
6.2.2 Genesis 140
6.2.3 Metamorphosis of EKW: From Brackish to Freshwater Aquaculture 141
6.2.4 Potentiality of EKW 141
6.3 Features 142
6.3.1 Characteristics of Wastewater in EKW 142
6.3.2 Aquaculture in EKW, Known as LEISA 142
6.3.3 Different Models of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture 142
6.3.4 Status of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture in EKW 143
6.3.5 Aquaculture Strategies 144
6.3.6 Marketing and People Participation 146
6.3.7 Environmental Benefit 146
6.4 Concerns 147
6.4.1 Poor Infrastructure 147
6.4.2 Safety of Fish Yield 147
6.4.3 Threats to Fish Diversity 147
6.4.4 Major Events Causing Concerns to EKW 148
6.4.5 Some Constraints to EKW 150
6.5 Measures 150
6.5.1 In Situ Conservation 151
6.5.2 Ex Situ Conservation 151
6.5.3 Some Specific Recommendation for Enhancing Fish Biodiversity in EKW 151
6.5.4 Marketing Chain in EKW 152
6.5.5 Measures for Protection of EKW 154
6.5.5.1 Physical Improvement of EKW 155
6.6 Conclusions 156
References 156
Chapter 7: Fish Diseases in Wastewater Aquaculture and Remedial Measures 157
7.1 Introduction 158
7.2 Fish Habitat Characteristic and Culture Practices in Wastewater Farms 159
7.3 Fish Stress in Wastewater Aquaculture 161
7.3.1 General Impact on Stress-Sensitive Haematological Parameters of Fish Population 161
7.3.2 Effect of Ammonia and Crowding Stress on Fish Skin in Wastewater Ponds 163
7.3.3 Morphological Impact on the Gills of Fish 164
7.3.4 Biological Stressors and Impact on Fish in Wastewater Fish Farms 166
7.3.5 Stress Due to Fish Cultural Practices and Impact on Fish in Wastewater Fish Farms 166
7.4 Fish Diseases Encountered in Wastewater Fish Farms 167
7.4.1 Infectious Diseases 167
7.4.1.1 Fin Rot and Tail Rot 167
7.4.1.2 Dropsy 169
7.4.1.3 Bacterial Gill Disease 169
7.4.1.4 Saprolegniasis 169
7.4.1.5 Trichodiniasis 170
7.4.1.6 Myxosporean Disease 170
7.4.1.7 Dactylogyrosis and Gyrodactylosis 171
7.4.1.8 Argulosis 172
7.4.1.9 Ergasilosis 172
7.4.2 Noninfectious Diseases 173
7.4.2.1 Hypoxia or Oxygen Deficiency 173
7.4.2.2 Gas Bubble Disease 173
7.4.2.3 Algal Toxicosis 173
7.5 Rapid Method for Evaluation of Fish Health in Sewage-Fed Fish Farms 173
7.6 Emerging and Persistent Issues Related to Fish Health Management in India 174
7.6.1 Environmental Aspects 174
7.6.2 Public Health and Aquaculture Products 174
7.6.3 Use of Drugs, Chemicals and Antibiotics 175
7.6.4 Impact of New Fish Culture Methods on Fish Health 175
7.6.5 Introduction of Exotic Fishes 175
7.6.6 Development of Disease Surveillance Mechanism 175
7.6.7 Quarantine and Certification of Fish 176
7.7 Conclusions 176
References 176
Part III: Strategies Toward Wastewater Reclamation Using Green and Sustainable Technologies 178
Chapter 8: Ecosystem Resilient Driven Remediation for Safe and Sustainable Reuse of Municipal Wastewater 179
8.1 Introduction 180
8.2 Potentials of Wastewater 181
8.3 Characteristics and Nutrient Potentials of Municipal Wastewater 182
8.4 Potentials of Sewage Sludge 182
8.5 Wastewater Recycling 182
8.6 Rationale for Wastewater Reuse 183
8.7 Technologies for Municipal Wastewater Treatment 184
8.7.1 Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) 184
8.7.2 Bioreactors 185
8.7.3 Ecological Resilient Driven Reclamation 185
8.7.3.1 Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSPs) 185
The Structural Design 186
8.7.4 Constructed Wetlands 187
8.7.5 Engineered Ecosystem Conceptualized 188
8.7.5.1 The Living Machines 189
8.7.6 Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture System 190
8.7.6.1 Microbiological Considerations 191
8.7.6.2 The Culture Practices 192
8.7.6.3 Selection of Fish Species 192
8.7.6.4 Water Quality and Ecological Integrity 193
8.7.6.5 Fish Production 194
8.7.7 Aquaponics 195
8.8 Suggested Strategies for Safeguarding Public Health in Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture 196
8.9 Conclusions 196
References 197
Chapter 9: Bioremediation of Perturbed Waterbodies Fed with Wastewater for Enhancing Finfish and Shellfish Production 200
9.1 Introduction 201
9.2 Bioremediation of Perturbed Waterbodies 201
9.2.1 Bioremediation in Inland Waters and Aquaculture 201
9.2.2 Stock Enhancements: A Bioremediation Strategy 202
9.2.3 Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) as Bioremediation Strategy 202
9.2.4 Bacterial Bioremediation 205
9.2.4.1 Biostimulation 205
9.2.4.2 Bagasse-Assisted Bioremediation 206
9.2.4.3 Bioaugmentation 206
9.2.4.4 Green Water Technology 209
9.2.4.5 Biofilm-/Periphyton-Based Bioremediation 210
9.2.4.6 Biofloc Technology 211
9.2.5 Biosorption of Heavy Metals 212
9.2.6 Phytoremediation (in Aquatic Environment) 212
9.2.7 Aquaponic-Based Bioremediation 213
9.2.8 Nutriremediation/Nutribioremediation for Alleviation of Multiple Stresses 214
9.2.9 Nanoremediation/Nanobioremediation 214
9.2.10 Remediation in Wastewater-Fed System 215
9.3 Multiomic Approaches for Predictability and Reliability of Bioremediation 216
9.4 Conclusions 216
References 218
Chapter 10: Aquaponics: A Green and Sustainable Eco-tech for Environmental Cum Economic Benefits Through Integration of Fish and Edible Crop Cultivation 222
10.1 Introduction 223
10.2 Aquaponics Conceptualized 224
10.3 Components 225
10.4 A Brief History of Aquaponics 225
10.5 Functional Mechanism 226
10.6 Aquaponics in Wastewater Reclamation 227
10.7 Diversity of Aquaponics 229
10.7.1 Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) 229
10.7.2 Vertical System 230
10.7.3 Media-Based System 230
10.7.4 Deep Water Culture System 231
10.8 Wicking Bed System 231
10.9 Factors Influencing Performance of Aquaponics 233
10.10 Global Scenario of Aquaponics 234
10.11 Conclusions 237
References 238
Chapter 11: Recent Technologies for Wastewater Treatment: A Brief Review 240
11.1 Introduction 241
11.2 Recent Techniques 242
11.2.1 Cavitation 242
11.2.1.1 Hydrodynamic vs. Ultrasonic Cavitation 242
11.2.1.2 Advantages of Hydrodynamic Cavitation 243
11.3 High Rate Algal Pond System (HRAPs) 244
11.4 Biotechnological Interventions in Wastewater Treatment 244
11.5 Application of Nanomaterials for Water and Wastewater Treatment 245
11.5.1 Adsorption 245
11.5.2 Carbon-Based Nanoadsorbents 245
11.5.3 Metal-Based Nanoadsorbents 245
11.5.4 Polymeric Nanoadsorbents 245
11.5.5 Nanomaterial-Based Membranes 246
11.5.6 Nanofiber Membranes 246
11.6 Microbial Fuel Cell (MFCs) and Wastewater Treatment 248
11.6.1 Concept of MFCs 248
11.6.2 Mechanism of MFCs 248
11.7 Conclusions 249
References 249
Chapter 12: Adsorption Technique for Removal of Heavy Metals from Water and Possible Application in Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture 250
12.1 Introduction 251
12.2 Different Treatment Techniques for Heavy Metal Removal 252
12.2.1 Chemical Precipitation 252
12.2.2 Ion Exchange 252
12.2.3 Membrane Filtration 253
12.2.4 Coagulation and Flocculation 253
12.2.5 Electrochemical Treatment 254
12.2.6 Adsorption 254
12.3 Use of Biosorbents for Removal of Heavy Metal 254
12.3.1 Definition of Biosorption 254
12.3.2 Mechanism of Biosorption 255
12.3.3 Different Types of Biosorbents for Heavy Metal Removal 256
12.3.3.1 Rice Husk 256
12.3.3.2 Sawdust 257
12.3.3.3 Sugarcane Bagasse 257
12.3.3.4 Fruit/Vegetable Waste 257
12.4 Use of Polymer-Based Adsorbents 258
12.4.1 Polymer-Clay Nanocomposites (PNCs) 258
12.4.1.1 Application of PNCs for Heavy Metal Removal 258
12.4.2 Superabsorbent Polymer (Hydrogels) 260
12.4.2.1 Application of Hydrogels for Heavy Metal Removal 260
12.5 Possible Application of Adsorption-Based Remediation Technologies in Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture: Experimental Evidences 262
12.6 Conclusions 262
References 263
Part IV: Economic Perspectives of Wastewater, Environmental Impact Assessment and Environmental Law and Regulations 267
Chapter 13: Multiple Reuse of Wastewater: Economic Perspectives 268
13.1 Introduction 269
13.2 Multiple Uses of Wastewater 270
13.2.1 Global Scenario 271
13.2.2 Types of Reuse of Wastewater 271
13.2.2.1 Agriculture 271
13.2.2.2 Urban 273
13.2.2.3 Industries 274
Wastewater Use Through Industrial Symbiosis 274
13.2.2.4 Integration of Agriculture and Aquaculture 275
13.3 Assessing Median Infection Risks in Irrigation 275
13.4 Reuse of Grey Water 275
13.5 Efficiency of Wastewater Recycling 276
13.5.1 Allocative Efficiency 276
13.5.2 Cost-Effective Analysis 277
13.6 Planning and Management 278
13.7 Conclusions 279
References 279
Chapter 14: Socioeconomic Impacts and Cost-Benefit Analysis of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture 281
14.1 Introduction 282
14.2 Positive Impacts of Wastewater 283
14.2.1 Economic Benefits 283
14.2.2 Environmental Benefits 285
14.3 Costs of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture 286
14.4 Negative Impacts of Wastewater 286
14.4.1 Public Health Aspect 286
14.4.2 Soil Degradation 287
14.5 Impacts on Biodiversity 287
14.6 Social Impacts 287
14.7 Valuation of Impacts and Cost-Benefit Analysis 288
14.7.1 Framework of Comprehensive Cost-Benefit Analysis 288
14.7.2 Valuation of Benefits and Costs of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture 289
14.7.2.1 Valuation of Environmental Benefits and Costs 289
14.7.3 Application of Approaches to Measure Benefits and Costs 291
14.7.4 Cost-Benefit Analysis of Wastewater-Fed Aquaculture 293
14.8 Comparison of East Kolkata Wastewater Fishery with Conventional and Rational Design Model 293
14.9 Conclusions 294
References 295
Chapter 15: Environmental Impact Assessment: A Case Study on East Kolkata Wetlands 297
15.1 Introduction 298
15.2 Classification of Wetlands 299
15.3 Methods of Impact Study 300
15.3.1 Levels of Assessment 300
15.3.2 Impact Assessment on East Kolkata Wetlands (EKW) 301
15.3.2.1 Geographical Location of EKWL 301
15.3.2.2 Study on Impact Assessment 302
15.3.2.3 Steps in EIA 303
15.3.2.4 Evidences of Impact Assessment 305
15.4 Impact Analysis Through Histophysiological Investigations of Fish 307
15.4.1 Histopathological Observations of Fish Tissues 307
15.4.2 Histochemical Observations of Fish Tissues 310
15.4.3 Scanning Electron Microscopic Observations (SEM) 310
15.4.4 Enzymological Study of Blood Parameters 312
15.4.5 Hormonal Observations 312
15.5 Conclusions 313
References 313
Chapter 16: Law and Regulation of Wastes and Wastewater: Indian Perspective 316
16.1 Introduction 317
16.1.1 Why Wetland and Wastewater Laws and Regulations? 317
16.2 Laws for Waste Management 318
16.3 Subordinate Legislations for Waste Management 319
16.4 State Laws 322
16.5 Law for Wastewater 323
16.6 Conclusions 323
Annexure-I 324
5. The East Kolkata Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Act, 2006 324
References 333
Glossary 334
Index 338