Genetic Manipulation in Plants for Mitigation of Climate Change (eBook)

Dr Pawan K. Jaiwal is presently working as a Professor in the Centre for Biotechnology at the M.D. University, Rohtak, India and has served at various administrative positions as the Director, Dean (presently), chairman/ member of statuary bodies at University. He has 30 years of PG teaching and 35 years of research experience and has published about 85 original research papers, 27 book chapters, review articles and 14 books. He has guided over 68 M.Sc. and M. Phil. students for their Dissertations and 20 Ph.D. students for their degree. He is a member of several academic bodies and is in the Editorial Board of four International research journals. Dr Jaiwal has been awarded DST Young Scientist Project, INSA Visiting Fellowship by INSA, New Delhi, DBT Overseas Associateship by DBT, New Delhi and Prof H S Srivastava Gold medal by National Academy of Environmental Sciences, Lucknow, India. He has several international fellowships to his credit and has visited many countries for academic contributions including laboratory of Prof Ingo Potrykus at the Institute of Plant Sciences, ETH, Zurich, Switzerland. His current research interests are metabolic engineering for resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses, nutrient use efficiency and nutritional quality improvement in pulses especially Vigna species, oil crops (ze: 13.3333330154419px;">Brassica juncea and Sesame) and cereals (wheat).Dr. Rana Pratap Singh is presently working as professor in the  Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar (A Central) University, Lucknow, (India). He has contributed significantly in understanding of ammonia assimilation and N-metabolism in plants. Besides, he has contributed some new knowledge on toxicity and remediation of soil and water ecosystems. He has 30 years of PG teaching and 35 years of research and 10 years of administrative experiences and has published about 100 original research papers, 14 review articles and 24 book chapters and 16 books. He has guided over 100 M.Sc. and M. Phil students for their Dissertations and 27 Ph.D. students for their degree. Professor Singh is Editor-in-Chief of an International Journal “Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants and Editor of “Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability”. He has 9 academic awards and international fellowships to his credit and has visited many countries for academic contributions.Prof. Om Parkash Dhankher is a Plant Biotechnologist (Associate Professor) in the Stockbridge School of Agriculture, University of Massachusetts, Amherst (U.S.A.). He developed the first transgenic plant based approach for arsenic phytoremediation. Prof. Dhankher has published more than 40 publications in high impact factor journals including Nature Biotech and was awarded several patents. His research was also featured in headlines on National Geographic Channel, ABC, Reuter etc. His research focus is multidisciplinary in nature ranging from crop improvements, phytoremediation to biofuels. He is Editor of the International Journal Plant Biology Research; Associate Editor of Frontier’s Agricultural Biological Chemistry, Editorial board member of two international journals and a member of the Executive Committee of the American Society of Plant Biologists (ASPB). He has supervised seven Ph.D students, three M.Sc students, four visiting Professors, five postdoctoral Research Associates, and over a dozen Undergraduate honours thesis students and has several ongoing collaborations with researchers in India, China, Italy, Egypt, and USA.

Preface 5
Contents 8
Contributors 10
About the Editors 13
1: Plant Responses to Tropospheric Ozone 15
1.1 Introduction 16
1.2 Assessing Phenotypic Effects of Ozone on Plants 16
1.3 Physiological Impact of Ozone in Crop Plants 17
1.4 Biochemical Changes in Response to Ozone Stress 18
1.4.1 Changes in Reactive Oxygen Species, Nitric Oxide, and Calcium 18
1.4.2 Phytohormone changes in Response to Ozone Stress 19
1.4.3 Antioxidant Defense Response to Ozone 19
1.5 Molecular Studies of Ozone Stress in Plants 20
1.5.1 Ozone-Responsive Transcriptome 20
1.5.2 Ozone-Responsive Proteome 21
1.5.2.1 Accumulation of Antioxidant Proteins 22
1.5.2.2 Downregulation of Photosynthetic Proteins 22
1.5.2.3 Increased Carbon Metabolism 23
1.5.2.4 Other Stress-Related Proteins 23
1.5.3 QTL Mapping 23
1.6 Conclusions and Perspectives 24
References 24
2: Plant Heat Stress Response and Thermotolerance 29
2.1 Introduction 30
2.2 Morphological and Physiological Changes in Response to Heat Stress 30
2.2.1 Sexual Reproduction under Heat Stress 31
2.2.2 Effect of Heat Stress on Photosynthesis 31
2.3 The Molecular Basis of the Heat Stress Response 32
2.3.1 Heat Sensing and Signaling 32
2.3.1.1 Plasma Membrane as the Primary Sensor of Heat 34
2.3.1.2 Protein Homeostasis and Unfolded Protein Response 35
Heat Stress Transcription Factors and Cytosolic Unfolded Protein Response 35
Endoplasmic Reticulum UPR 36
2.3.1.3 Nuclear Histone Modification as Sensor of Temperature Fluctuations 37
2.3.2 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Signaling 37
2.3.3 Nitric Oxide (NO) Signaling 38
2.3.4 Hormone Signaling 39
2.4 Metabolic Responses to Heat Stress 39
2.4.1 Soluble Sugars 40
2.4.2 Amino Acids 41
2.4.3 Nonprotein Amino Acids 41
2.4.4 Amines 42
2.4.5 Secondary Metabolites 43
2.5 Approaches for Improving Plant Thermotolerance 43
2.5.1 Screening for Thermotolerance 44
2.5.2 Enhancing Heat Tolerance by Genetic Engineering 45
2.5.3 Breeding for Heat-Tolerant Crops 46
2.6 Conclusions 47
References 47
3: Plant Breeding for Flood Tolerance: Advances and Limitations 56
3.1 Introduction 56
3.1.1 Maintaining Adequate Oxygen 57
3.1.2 Economisation of ATP Consumption 57
3.1.3 Developing a Capacity to Generate ATP without Oxygen 57
3.2 Oxygen Availability and Plant Metabolism under Hypoxia and Anoxia 58
3.2.1 Oxygen Availability in Flooded Soils 58
3.2.2 Whole-Plant Responses to Oxygen Deprivation 58
3.2.3 Biochemical Alterations in Hypoxic Roots 59
3.3 Plant Adaptation to Hypoxia 59
3.3.1 Aerenchyma Formation 59
3.3.1.1 Lysigenous Aerenchyma Formation 60
3.3.1.2 Ethylene Signalling in Aerenchyma Formation via PCD 60
3.3.1.3 Ca2+ Signalling in the Lysigenous Aerenchyma Formation 61
3.3.2 Variation in Aerenchyma Formation between and Within Species 62
3.3.3 Oxygen Transport from Shoot to Root 62
3.3.4 Formation of ROL Barrier and Control of Oxygen Loss 63
3.3.5 Gas Film Formation 63
3.4 Secondary Metabolite Toxicities in Flooded Soils 64
3.4.1 Changes in Soil Redox Potential under Flooding 64
3.4.2 Elemental Toxicities in Flooded Soils 64
3.4.2.1 Mn and Fe Uptake by Roots 64
3.4.2.2 Mn and Fe Transport to the Shoot 65
3.4.2.3 Physiological Constraints Imposed by Excessive Mn and Fe Accumulation 66
3.4.2.4 Mechanisms to Deal with Elemental Toxicities 67
3.4.3 Organic Phytotoxins in Flooded Soils 68
3.4.3.1 Secondary Metabolite Toxins Produced under Flooded Conditions 68
3.4.3.2 Whole-Plant and Cellular Responses to Phytotoxins 69
3.4.3.3 Plant Adaptation to Organic Phytotoxins 69
3.5 Crop Breeding for Flooding Stress Tolerance 70
3.5.1 Transgenic Approach: Is This a Way Forward? 70
3.5.2 Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) Approach to Plant Breeding 70
3.5.2.1 MAS for Agronomic Traits Linked to Waterlogging/Submergence Tolerance 71
3.5.2.2 MAS for Major Physiological Traits Conferring Waterlogging Stress Tolerance 71
3.5.3 Limitations and Development of More Reliable Markers to Be Used in MAS 72
3.6 Emerging Areas 73
3.6.1 Elucidating the Role of Membrane Transporters in Flooding Tolerance 73
3.6.1.1 Hypoxia Sensing 73
3.6.1.2 Cytosolic pH Homeostasis 74
3.6.1.3 Potassium Homeostasis 74
3.6.2 Developing High-Throughput Technology Platforms for Fine QTL Mapping 74
3.6.3 Understanding ROS Signalling in Flooding Stress Tolerance 75
3.7 Conclusions and Prospectives 75
References 75
4: Genetic Improvement of Drought Resistance in Rice 86
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 Evaluation of Drought Resistance in Rice 87
4.3 Conventional Breeding of Drought Resistance in Rice 88
4.4 MAS for Drought Resistance in Rice 89
4.5 Transgenic Techniques for Drought Tolerance in Rice 96
4.6 Conclusions and Perspectives 107
References 108
5: Polyamine Biosynthesis Engineering as a Tool to Improve Plant Resistance to Abiotic Stress 116
5.1 Introduction: Plant Polyamine Metabolism 117
5.2 Polyamines Are Implicated in the Plant Response to Abiotic Stress 118
5.2.1 Modulation of Polyamine Metabolism under Abiotic Stress Conditions 118
5.2.2 Polyamine Treatment Could Modulate Plant Stress Tolerance 119
5.2.3 Depletion of Plant Polyamine Levels Increases Their Sensitivity to Stress 119
5.3 Transgenic Engineering of Polyamine Biosynthetic Pathway Improves Plant Abiotic Stress Tolerance 120
5.4 Potential Mechanisms of Polyamine Action in Plant Abiotic Stress Response 123
5.4.1 Polyamines as a Protective Molecules 123
5.4.2 Polyamines as Signalling Molecules 123
5.5 Conclusions 125
References 125
6: Enhancing Nutrient Starvation Tolerance in Rice 130
6.1 Introduction 131
6.2 Sustenance of Rice Mineral Nutrition 131
6.3 Nutrient Deficiency in Rice Soils 133
6.4 Need for Nutrient Deficiency Tolerance 135
6.4.1 Low Genotypic Nutrient Use Efficiency 135
6.4.2 Environmental Contamination Due to Surplus Nutrients 136
6.4.3 Waning Natural Fertiliser Resources 136
6.5 Mechanisms for Nutrient Starvation Tolerance 138
6.5.1 Nitrogen 138
6.5.2 Phosphorus 139
6.5.3 Potassium 140
6.5.4 Sulphur 141
6.5.5 Zinc 141
6.6 Breeding for Nutrient Starvation Tolerance 142
6.7 Engineering Nutrient Starvation Tolerance 144
6.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 146
References 147
7: Engineered Plants for Heavy Metals and Metalloids Tolerance 156
7.1 Introduction 157
7.1.1 Heavy Metal Toxicity in Plants and Effects on Crop Productivity 157
7.1.1.1 Arsenic 157
7.1.1.2 Mercury 158
7.1.1.3 Cadmium 158
7.1.1.4 Zinc 158
7.1.1.5 Copper 159
7.1.1.6 Lead 159
7.1.1.7 Chromium 159
7.1.1.8 Selenium 160
7.2 Strategies for Heavy Metal Detoxification and Enhanced Tolerance in Plants 160
7.2.1 Chelation with Metal-Binding Peptides 160
7.2.1.1 Chelation with Glutathione 162
7.2.1.2 Chelation with Phytochelatins 163
7.2.1.3 Chelation with Metallothioneins 164
7.2.1.4 Other Metal-Binding Peptides 165
7.3 Compartmentation and Sequestration of Heavy Metals 166
7.3.1 Transport and Storage of GSH- and PC-Bound Metals to Vacuoles 166
7.4 Heavy Metal Transporters 167
7.4.1 Metal Uptake Transporters 167
7.4.2 Metal Efflux Transporters 168
7.5 Other Genes for Metal Tolerance 170
7.5.1 Phytovolatization 170
7.5.2 Genes Involved in Oxidative Stress Response and Misfolded Protein Repair 171
7.6 Heavy Metal Tolerance and Climate Change Adaptations 172
7.7 Conclusions 173
References 173
8: Prospects of Genetic Manipulation for Enhanced Heavy Metal Tolerance and Bioremediation in Relation to Climate Change 182
8.1 Climate Change: Introduction 182
8.2 Effect of Climate Change on Growth Responses of Plants 183
8.3 Effect of Climate/Geographical Conditions on Metal Composition/Bioavailability 185
8.4 Effect of Climate Change on Metal Accumulation 186
8.4.1 Effect of Temperature 186
8.4.2 Effect of Carbon Dioxide 187
8.4.3 Effect of Ozone and Other Environmental Factors 188
8.4.4 Effect of Drought and Salinity 189
8.5 Prospective Strategies for Genetic Manipulation for Enhanced Phytoremediation in Changing Climate 190
8.6 Conclusions and Future Directions 194
References 194
9: Biotechnological Approaches to Mitigate Adverse Effects of Extreme Climatic Factors on Plant Productivity 200
9.1 Introduction 201
9.2 Climate Change Causes and Consequences 201
9.3 Metabolic Changes in Plants Due to Climate Variability and Climate Change 202
9.4 Gene and Loci Responsive to Major Climatic Factors and Assessment of Genetic Improvement in Plants to Mitigate Extreme Climatic Factors 206
9.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 212
References 213
10: Impacts of Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide Emissions on Plant-Insect Interactions 217
10.1 Introduction 217
10.2 Role of Plant Ecophysiology on Quality of Foliage 218
10.2.1 Photosynthesis and Stomata Closure 218
10.2.2 The Impact of Leaf Quality on Folivores 218
10.2.3 Consequences on Plant Growth Rate 219
10.2.4 Consequences of Ecophysiology Changes on Secondary Metabolism 219
10.2.4.1 C:N Balance and Plant-Insect Interactions 219
10.2.4.2 Unpredictability of CO2 Effects on Secondary Metabolism 221
10.2.5 Consequences of Stomata Closure 221
10.2.5.1 Transpiration and Leaf Temperature 221
10.3 Solving the Ambiguity of Induced Chemical Defenses to Insect Damage 221
10.3.1 Early Responses to Herbivory 222
10.3.2 Jamonates Regulation as Key of Inducing Defenses 223
10.3.3 Cross Talk among Defense Pathways 224
10.3.4 CO2 Regulates Chemical Defenses through Phytohormones 226
10.4 Impact of Atmosphere with High CO2 Levels on Agriculture 227
10.5 Concluding Remarks 228
References 228
11: GM Crops for Developing World in the Era of Climate Change: For Increase of Farmer’s Income, Poverty Alleviation, Nutrition and Health 234
11.1 Introduction 235
11.2 GM Crops: An Overview of Plant Transformation 235
11.3 GM Crops in Developing Countries 237
11.4 Transgenic Crops for Increase of Farmer’s Income 237
11.4.1 The First Generation of GM Crops: Increasing Farmer’s Income 238
11.4.2 Concern of Farmers about Planting Genetically Modified Crops 239
11.5 Transgenic Crops for Poverty Alleviation 240
11.5.1 Role of Bt Cotton in Alleviating Poverty in India 241
11.6 Transgenic Crops for Nutrition and Health 242
11.6.1 Next Generation GM Crops: Improving Nutrition and Health 242
11.7 Transgenic Crops in the Era of Climate Change 244
11.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects 246
References 248