Climate Change and Agriculture Worldwide (eBook)

Dr. Emmanuel Torquebiau, CIRAD (Frnch Agricultural Research Centre for International Development, Montpellier, France.

Agricultures et d00E9fis du monde 5
Foreword 6
Preface 8
Acknowledgments 10
Contents 11
Contributors 14
Research Unit Acronyms 19
List of Boxes 21
1 How Climate Change Reshuffles the Cards for Agriculture 22
Abstract 22
1.1 Background 22
1.2 Main Thrusts of the Latest IPCC Report and the Agricultural Implications 23
1.2.1 Adaptation and Agriculture 26
1.2.2 Mitigation and Agriculture 26
1.2.3 The Bioenergy Issue 28
1.2.4 Situation of Developing Countries 29
1.3 What Climate-Smart Agriculture Proposes 30
1.3.1 Synergy Between Adaptation and Mitigation 30
1.3.2 Efficiency, Resilience and Landscape Scale 33
1.4 Designing and Implementing Appropriate Public Policies 35
References 36
Part ICoping with Climate Change 38
2 Hazards, Vulnerability and Risk 39
Abstract 39
2.1 Brief Review of Cyndinics---The Science of Risk 39
2.2 How Does This Apply to Climate Change? 42
2.3 What About Vulnerability? 44
2.3.1 What Are the Current and Future Adaptation Margins? 44
2.3.2 To Avoid Addressing the Issues Inefficiently 45
2.4 What Relevance for Rural Areas? 47
References 48
3 Rice Adaptation Strategies in Response to Heat Stress at Flowering 50
Abstract 50
3.1 Background 51
3.2 Sterility Risks---Changes in the Climate and Cropping Practices 51
3.3 Adaptation Through Escape---Anthesis Early in the Day 52
3.4 Adaptation Through Avoidance---Panicle Cooling Through Transpiration 54
3.5 Adaptation Through Tolerance---Genes that Maintain Fertility Despite Heat 58
3.6 A Yield Prediction Tool 59
3.7 Conclusion 60
References 61
4 Adaptation to Salinity 63
Abstract 63
4.1 Background 63
4.2 Tilapia Adaptation to Salinity 64
4.2.1 Osmoregulation of Fish in Saltwater Environments 64
4.2.2 Selection of a Saltwater-Adapted Tilapia Strain 66
4.2.3 Future Research Opportunities 66
4.3 Salinity and Rice Growing 67
4.3.1 Rice x Salinity Interaction---Adaptation Mechanisms 68
4.3.2 Genetic Basis of Salinity Tolerance in Rice 69
4.3.3 Breeding Salt-Tolerant Rice 71
4.4 Citrus Adaptation to Salinity 72
4.4.1 Citrus Propagation Strategies 72
4.4.2 Citrus x Salinity Interactions---Adaptation Mechanisms 73
4.4.3 Rootstock, Diversity and Salt Tolerance 73
4.4.4 Polyploidy and Adaptation to Salt Stress 74
4.4.5 Breeding Salt-Tolerant Varieties 75
4.5 Conclusion 75
References 75
5 Enhanced Drought Adaptation in African Savanna Crops 77
Abstract 77
5.1 Climate Change and Plant Drought Adaptation 77
5.1.1 Drought Diversity 77
5.1.2 Plant Adaptation Mechanisms and Genetic Improvement 78
5.1.3 Towards the Identification of Adaptation Traits and Selection 79
5.2 The Example of Cotton 80
5.2.1 Context 80
5.2.2 Questions and Avenues of Research at CIRAD and Worldwide 80
5.2.2.1 Wide Genetic Resource Diversity in the Gossypium Genus---The Wild G. Hirsutum Pool 80
5.2.2.2 Exploitation and Effective Use of Genetic Diversity in Global Cultivated Cotton Germplasm 81
5.2.2.3 Understanding the Response Mechanisms 81
5.2.2.4 Genotype x Environment Interactions 83
5.2.2.5 What Genomics and Biotechnology Contributions? 85
5.3 The Example of Groundnut 85
5.3.1 Context 85
5.3.2 Questions and Avenues of Research at CIRAD and Worldwide 86
5.3.2.1 Towards an Integrated Selection Strategy for Groundnut Drought Adaptation 86
5.3.2.2 Contribution of Interspecific Hybridization and Highly Self-Limiting Populations 86
5.4 Conclusion and Outlook 88
References 89
6 Tropical Crop Pests and Diseases in a Climate Change Setting---A Few Examples 90
Abstract 90
6.1 Background 91
6.2 Impact on the Epidemiology of Coffee and Cocoa Diseases 91
6.2.1 Coffee Rust 91
6.2.2 Cacao Swollen Shoot Virus---Climate Change, Deforestation or Both? 92
6.3 Lepidopteran Stem-Borers and Other Insect Pests of Sugarcane---Biological Control Disturbances, Expansion of Infested Areas 93
6.4 Changes in the Helicoverpa Armigera Population Dynamics in Cotton Fields 95
6.5 Coffee Berry Borer---A Spreading Pest 95
6.6 How to Cope with Climate Change and Provide New Pest Control Solutions 97
References 98
7 Healthy Tropical Plants to Mitigate the Impact of Climate Change---As Exemplified in Coffee 100
Abstract 100
7.1 Coffee---A Model for Studying Climate Constraints 101
7.2 Enhancing Plant Health---A Revisited Concept 101
7.3 The Specificity of Perennial Crops---Specific Field Research and Integrative Approaches 102
7.4 Rust, Nematodes and Drought---Three Major Targets 105
7.4.1 Coffee Rust Tolerance 105
7.4.2 Impact of Climate Change on Coffee/Nematode Interactions 108
7.4.3 Towards the Identification of Genes Responsible for Drought Tolerance in Coffee Trees 109
7.4.3.1 Genetic Diversity of Coffee Trees and Mechanisms Involved in Drought Tolerance 109
7.4.3.2 Identification of Candidate Genes 110
7.5 Outlook 110
References 111
8 Climate Change and Vector-Borne Diseases 113
Abstract 113
8.1 Background 114
8.2 Climate Impact on the Distribution of Disease Cycle Components 115
8.3 Climate Impact on Disease Transmission Dynamics 117
8.4 Climate and Major Vector-Borne Disease Outbreaks 119
8.5 Modelling to Understand, Predict and Control 120
8.6 Limits and Conclusion 122
References 123
9 Relationships Between Tropical Annual Cropping Systems and Climate Change 125
Abstract 125
9.1 Background 126
9.2 Sensitivity of Annual Crops to Climate Variables 126
9.2.1 Effects of Increased Temperature 126
9.2.2 Effects of Rainfall Variations 127
9.2.3 Effects of Increased Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentrations 128
9.2.4 Effects of Changes in Radiation 128
9.2.5 Effects of Wind 128
9.2.6 Interactions Between Effects 129
9.3 Mitigating the Causes of Climate Change 130
9.3.1 Limiting Input Consumption 130
9.3.2 Increasing Carbon Sequestration 131
9.3.3 Limiting Methane Emissions 131
9.4 Adaptation to Climate Change 132
9.4.1 Forecasting the Effects 132
9.4.2 Adaptation of Cropping Systems 133
9.5 Conservation Agriculture 134
9.5.1 Conservation Agriculture---A Carbon Sequestration Solution? 135
9.6 Agroforestry 137
9.7 Risk Insurance 137
9.8 Conclusion and Outlook 138
References 139
Part IISeeking Novel Practices 141
10 Livestock Farming Constraints in Developing Countries---From Adaptation to Mitigation in Ruminant Production Systems 142
Abstract 142
10.1 Background 143
10.2 Producing References on Livestock Farming Systems in Developing Countries 144
10.3 Potential Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation Pathways 145
10.3.1 Improving Resource Use Efficiency and Livestock Productivity 145
10.3.2 Carbon Storage in Rangelands 148
10.4 Impact of Climate Change on Livestock Farming in Developing Countries 149
10.4.1 Thermal and Water Stress 149
10.4.2 Quantity and Quality of Forage Resources 150
10.4.3 Land Availability 150
10.5 Livestock Farming Adaptation Capacities 151
10.6 Conclusion 153
References 154
11 Climate-Smart Farms? Case Studies in Burkina Faso and Colombia 157
Abstract 157
11.1 Background 158
11.2 Framework for the Analysis of Farmers' Strategies 159
11.3 Materials and Methods 159
11.3.1 Case Study in Colombia 159
11.3.2 Case Study in Burkina Faso 160
11.4 Results 161
11.4.1 Diversity of Adaptation Mechanisms 161
11.4.2 In Colombia---Information Required to Cope with Climate Change 162
11.4.3 In Burkina Faso---Compost and Climate-Smart Farms 164
11.5 Discussion 165
11.5.1 Diversity of Adaptation Mechanisms Used by Farmers 165
11.5.2 Lessons for the Co-design of Climate-Smart Farms 166
References 167
12 Joint Management of Water Resources in Response to Climate Change Disruptions 169
Abstract 169
12.1 Water Cycle and Climate Change---The Issues 169
12.2 Characterizing Change 171
12.3 Proposing Technical Solutions 174
12.4 Adapting Governance to Cope with Change 175
12.5 Other Studies 176
12.6 Conclusion 177
References 177
13 Agricultural Organic Waste Recycling to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions 180
Abstract 180
13.1 Background 181
13.2 Waste Recycling Pathways of Climatic Interest 182
13.2.1 Pathways Studied at the Farm Level 182
13.2.2 Pathways Studied at the Farmers' Association Level 184
13.2.3 Pathways Studied at the Territorial Level 185
13.2.4 Implemented Organic Waste Recycling Strategies 186
13.3 Production of Knowledge on Greenhouse Gas Emissions During Recycling 188
13.3.1 Estimation and Modelling of Emissions During Processing and Storage 189
13.3.2 Estimation and Measurement of Emissions After Field Applications 190
13.4 Research Outlook 191
References 193
14 Will Tropical Rainforests Survive Climate Change? 195
Abstract 195
14.1 Background 195
14.2 From a Turbulent Climate History to Current Global Change 196
14.3 From Today's Climate to Tomorrow's Projections 197
14.4 How Can the Vulnerability of Forest Species to Water Stress Be Assessed? 199
14.5 Adapting Production and Management Strategies 200
14.6 Outlook 202
References 206
15 Adaptation and Mitigation in Tropical Tree Plantations 209
Abstract 209
15.1 Issues 210
15.2 Main Results and Recent Trends 211
15.2.1 Climate Change Mitigation Role of Tropical Tree Plantations 211
15.2.2 Development of Genetic Improvement to Promote Adaptation to Climate Change 213
15.2.2.1 Taking Ecophysiology into Account in Breeding Programmes 213
15.2.2.2 A Few Recent Studies 214
15.2.3 Changes in Cropping Practices to Promote Adaptation to Climate Change 216
15.2.4 Consequences of Global Pathogen Dissemination 218
15.3 Conclusion and Outlook 218
15.3.1 Enhance Multidisciplinary Research 218
15.3.2 Developing Multispecies Plantations 219
15.3.3 Analysing the Adaptation Capacities of Village Plantations 219
References 219
16 Coffee and Cocoa Production in Agroforestry---A Climate-Smart Agriculture Model 221
Abstract 221
16.1 Background 222
16.2 Impact of Climate Change on Coffee and Cocoa Producing Regions 222
16.3 Mitigation 224
16.3.1 Cocoa Agroforestry in Cameroon 225
16.3.2 Coffee Agroforestry in India 226
16.3.3 Coffee Agroforestry in Latin America 227
16.3.4 Example of the Coffee Agroforestry Impact on Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Costa Rica 228
16.4 Adaptation 229
16.4.1 Impacts of Agroforestry Practices on the Microclimate, Water Availability, Production and Quality 229
16.4.1.1 Microclimate and Water 229
16.4.1.2 Production and Quality 230
16.4.2 Effects of Agroforestry Practices on Household Income and Diversification 231
16.4.2.1 Example of Pepper and Wood Production in Robusta Coffee Agroforestry Plantations in India 231
16.4.2.2 Example of Timber Production in Coffee Agroforestry Plantations in Costa Rica 231
16.4.2.3 Examples of Cocoa Agroforestry Plantations in Cameroon 232
16.4.2.4 Example of Cocoa Agroforestry in Central America 232
16.5 Recommendations for Research and Agroforestry Practices 233
16.6 Policy Recommendations 234
References 235
Part IIIStimulating Change 237
17 Impact of Climate Change on Food Consumption and Nutrition 238
Abstract 238
17.1 Background 238
17.2 Climate Change and Diet-Related Non Communicable Diseases: Same Determinants 239
17.2.1 Meat Consumption and Climate Change 242
17.2.2 Are Vegetarian Diets Part of the Solution? 243
17.3 Effects of Climate Change on Food and Nutrition 243
17.3.1 Potential Impact of Climate Change on Undernutrition 243
17.3.2 Climate Change Impacts in Communities Dependent on Agriculture 244
17.4 Future Research Opportunities 245
17.4.1 Broad Multidisciplinary Approaches 245
17.4.2 Research that Takes an Ecological Approach to Public Health 246
17.4.3 Prioritizing Research on the Role of Women 246
17.4.4 Impact of Rural to Urban Migration on the Sustainability of Urban Diets 247
17.4.5 Research on the Organization of Food Systems in Response to Climate Change 247
17.4.6 Monitoring and Surveillance Systems Are Crucial 247
References 248
18 The One Health Concept to Dovetail Health and Climate Change Policies 250
Abstract 250
18.1 Background 251
18.2 General Framework: The `One Health' Concept 254
18.3 Prioritization of Diseases and Risk Assessment 256
18.4 Risk Reduction: Enhance and Adapt Health Systems 258
18.5 Conclusion 260
References 260
19 Impact of Climate Change on Ecosystem Services 262
Abstract 262
19.1 The Ecosystem Services Concept 263
19.2 Value of Ecosystem Services in Reducing Socioecosystem Vulnerability 266
19.3 Impacts of Climate Change on Ecosystem Services 267
19.4 Preservation of Ecological Functions in the Climate Change Context 269
19.5 Conclusion and Outlook 270
References 271
20 Life Cycle Assessment to Understand Agriculture-Climate Change Linkages 273
Abstract 273
20.1 A Single International Standard to Quantify Agricultural Greenhouse Gases 274
20.2 A Simple Conceptual and Methodological Framework for an Array of Scientific Challenges 275
20.3 What Does Life Cycle Assessment Tell Us About the Impact of Crops on Climate Change? 277
20.4 What Does Life Cycle Assessment not Tell Us? 281
References 284
21 Payment for Environmental Services in Climate Change Policies 286
Abstract 286
21.1 Background 286
21.2 Economic Theory and Payment for Environmental Services 288
21.3 A Variety of Arrangements 289
21.3.1 Inclusion in Government Policies and Projects 290
21.3.2 Involvement in Market-Oriented Institutional Arrangements 291
21.4 A Contribution to Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Policies 294
21.5 Conclusion 295
References 296
22 Tackling the Climate Change Challenge: What Roles for Certification and Ecolabels? 298
Abstract 298
22.1 Background 298
22.2 Mitigation, Adaptation and Voluntary Sustainability Standards 300
22.3 How Useful are Voluntary Sustainability Standards in the Context of Climate Change? 304
22.3.1 Ecolabels, Certification and Information Asymmetry 304
22.3.2 Standards as Market Instruments: Can Production Activity Externalities Be Internalized Through Labelling? 305
22.3.3 Non-market Aspects of Standards 306
22.4 Conclusion and Outlook 307
Acknowledgements 307
References 308
23 Climate Policy Assessment on Global and National Scales 309
Abstract 309
23.1 From Climate Policy to Integration of Climate Issues into `Non-climate' Policies 309
23.2 Assessing the Value of Climate Policies: The `Cost-Benefit' Approach 312
23.3 Assessing Climate Policy Effectiveness: The `Cost-Effectiveness' Approach 313
23.4 Evaluation of Co-benefits and Adverse Side-Effects 316
23.5 Outlook 317
References 318
Part IVLooking Ahead 319
24 What About Climate-Smart Agriculture? 320
Abstract 320
24.1 Background 320
24.2 What Does the Climate-Smart Agriculture Concept Contribute? 321
24.3 More Work Needed on Certain Important Issues 324
24.4 Public Policies Are Indispensable 327
24.5 Public Aid for Development Can Play a Decisive Role 328
References 331
25 Climate-Smart Agriculture and International Climate Change Negotiation Forums 332
Abstract 332
25.1 Climate-Smart Agriculture, A Proposal from the Agricultural Community 333
25.1.1 Agriculture: Central to Climate Talks but Too Politically Charged 333
25.1.2 Climate-Smart Agriculture: Triple Win or Necessary Policy Tradeoffs? 336
25.2 Clarifying the Political Agenda Underpinning the Inevitable Arbitrations 338
25.3 Fostering a Policy Dialogue on National Transformation Pathways 339
25.4 Outlook for Research 340
References 342
26 New Research Perspectives to Address Climate Challenges Facing Agriculture Worldwide 344
Abstract 344
26.1 Context 345
26.2 Avoid Separating Adaptation and Mitigation 346
26.3 Innovate by Generating Knowledge and Facilitating Learning 347
26.4 Devise New Climate-Smart and Resilient Options and Create an Environment Conducive to Change 350
26.5 Conclusion 353
References 354