Global Approaches to Site Contamination Law (eBook)

Contents:1. Introduction1.1  Site Contamination Law in the Broader Context of Environmental Law1.2  Terminology of Site Contamination  1.2.1  ‘Site’ versus ‘Land, Soil and/or Water’      1.2.2  ‘Contamination’ versus ‘Pollution’ 2. The Nature and Extent of Site Contamination2.1  Sources and Effects of Site Contamination2.1.1  Common Types of Contaminating Activities        2.1.2  Common Contaminants                              2.1.3  Effects of Contamination     2.2  Extent of Site Contamination 2.2.1  Geographical Locations and Trends2.2.2  Number of Contaminated Sites and Proportion of Land Mass Affected2.3  Remediation of Site Contamination – Common Approaches      2.4  Progress in Remediation2.5  Economic Considerations in Remediation of Site Contamination         2.6  Regulatory Trends in Remediation of Site Contamination           2.6.1   Historical Perspective – Trend to Site-Based Risk Assessment2.6.2  Modern Approach – From Regulation to Brownfields Redevelopment          2.6.3  Post-Remediation Measures (‘Long-Term Stewardship’)           3. Current International Law Relating To Site Contamination3.1  Terminology3.1.1   International Law3.1.2   Regional Law3.1.3   Bilateral Law3.1.4   Soft Law3.1.5   Customary Law3.2 Regulatory Measures   3.2.1   Soil Protection          3.2.2   Pollution and Pollutants     3.2.3   General Environmental Protection           3.3  Liability Measures3.3.1   State Responsibility            3.3.2  Civil Liability for Environmental Harm   3.4  Summary3.5Conclusions and Analysis                    4. National Site Contamination Law                    4.1  Definition of ‘National Site Contamination Law’                            4.2  Categories of Site Contamination Law        4.2.1 Countries with Extensive, Specific Provisions on Site Contamination           4.2.2 Countries with Limited, Specific Provisions on Site Contamination    4.2.3    Countries with No Provisions on Site Contamination 4.3  An Overview of National Site Contamination Law                         4.3.1  Countries With Extensive, Specific Site Contamination Law   4.3.2  Countries With Limited, Specific Legislation                   4.3.3  Countries With No Specific Site Contamination Law    4.4  Key Trends and Issues in The Development of National Site Contamination Law     4.4.1  Concentration of Site Contamination Legislation                       4.4.2  Regulatory ‘Model’ or Approach                 4.4.3  Brownfields Legislation                   4.4.4  Policy versus Law and Technical/Scientific Standards                         4.4.5  Key Features of Site Contamination Regimes in Specific Jurisdictions        4.4.6  Factors Influencing Developments in Site Contamination Law                       4.4.7   Influence of ‘Models’ with Particular Countries                         4.4.8   Influence of Costs of Cleanup                   5. Responsibility for Site Contamination5.1  Definition of Responsible Parties     5.2  Nature of Liability                                 5.2.1  Retrospectivity           5.2.2  Strict Liability5.2.3  Fault-Based Liability5.2.4  Joint and Several Liablity5.2.5   Proportionate Liability5.3  Mechanisms for Imposing Liability                5.3.1   The ‘Command and Control’Approach5.3.2   Non-Traditional Mechanisms        5.3.3   Transfer of Liability5.4  Remediation of ‘Orphan’ Sites                                                           6. Promoting National Site Contamination Law: The Challenge of Harmonisation                                                            6.1  Defining Harmonisation         6.2  Types of Harmonisation                      6.2.1   Binding Protocol to an Existing Treaty, or a New/Amended Binding Treaty                   6.2.2   Loan Conditions and Bilateral Aid Agreements                   6.2.3   High-Level Declarations or Resolutions 6.2.4   Guidelines or Recommendations                               6.2.5   ISO Standards               6.2.6   Codes of Practice                       6.2.7   A Model Law or Policy                                       6.2.8   Emulation of ‘State of the Art’ Practices in Other Jurisdictions           6.2.9   Emulation Due to Market Pressure          6.3   Justifications for Harmonisation                   6.4   Qualifications and Limitations Relating to Harmonisation          6.5   Overcoming the Limitations of Harmonisation                   6.6   Who Might Promote Harmonisation of Site Contamination Law, and How?                                                                                 7. An International Response to Site Contamination                           7.1 Reasons for an International Response to Site Contamination   7.2       Site Contamination as a Matter of International Concern        7.3       Examples of Recent International Regimes on Related or Similar Matters                                                                                  7.3.1   Chemicals and Contaminants                              7.3.2   Soils/Degradation    7.3.3   The Key Role of UNEP in Initiating New International Agreements  7.3.4   Conclusions                                                 7.4       The Appropriate Form of an International Instrument               7.4.1   A Binding International Instrument7.4.2   Soft Law Options7.4.3   A Regional Approach?7.5       Possible Content of an International Instrument                                    8. Alternatives to International Law – Other Means of Promoting National Site Contamination Law                                          8.1 Outline of Alternatives              8.1.1   Global and Regional Lending Institutions          8.1.2   Bilateral Aid Initiatives        8.1.3   ISO Standards          8.1.4   Voluntary Codes of Practice          8.1.5   A ‘Model Law’ on Site Contamination     8.2       Comparative Evaluation of All Options                            9. Recommended Features of a Model Law on Site Contamination              9.1 Scope of a Model Law on Site Contamination9.1.1   New versus Amended Legislation                        9.1.2   A Universal Definition of Site Contamination    9.1.3 Allocation of Liability for Remediation9.1.4 Role of Private Professionals9.1.5 Regulatory Process for Remediation9.1.6 Voluntary Remediation/Brownfield Measures                  9.1.7 Post-Remediation Measures9.1.8 Public Participation                                       9.2       How a Model Law on Site Contamination Might be Developed                      9.2.1   Achieving Legitimacy, Transparency and Sensitivity to Local Conditions – Prior Assessment and Consultation9.2.2   Securing the Uptake of Legislation Based on the Model Law                        9.2.3   The Mechanics of Developing and Promoting a Model Law               9.2.4   Who Will Prepare and Promote the Model Law? 10. Conclusions and Recommendations                        10.1    Lack of International Law and Policy on Site Contamination             10.2    The Need for Specific National Regulatory Regimes on Site Contamination        10.3    Lack of Consistent Approaches to Site Contamination Lawand Policy at the National Level               10.4    The Case for Harmonisation of Site Contamination Law         10.4.1 Top-Down Harmonisation – The Prospects of an International Instrument on Site Contamination                                                  10.4.2 Bottom-Up Approaches – A Model Law on Site Contamination         10.5    Summary