Rainfed Farming Systems (eBook)

Foreword 8
Preface 10
Acknowledgments 12
Contents 14
Part I: Principles and Their Application 20
Chapter 1: Principles of a Systems Approach to Agriculture 21
1.1 Introduction and Definitions 22
1.2 Understanding Farm Systems Through Analysis and the Study of Sub-Systems 28
1.3 Systems Approaches 30
1.4 Purpose, Structure and Characteristics of Farm Systems 32
1.4.1 Purpose 32
1.4.2 Designing the System 33
1.4.3 Productivity and Profitability 34
1.4.4 Stability 34
1.4.5 Sustainability 35
1.4.6 Equity 38
1.4.7 Flexibility and Adaptability 39
1.4.8 Resilience 40
1.4.9 Efficiency 40
1.4.9.1 Efficiency of Utilisation of Energy 44
1.4.9.2 Water Use Efficiency 46
Transpiration Efficiency 46
Precipitation Use Efficiency 50
1.4.9.3 Economic Efficiency 51
1.5 Conclusion 52
Supplement to Chapter 1 53
Emergy: A New Approach to Environmental Accounting 53
S1.1 Overall Emergy Concepts 53
S1.2 Emergy as a Valuation Method 57
S1.3 Conclusions on Emergy Analysis 58
References to Supplement 58
References 59
Chapter 2: Types of Rainfed Farming Systems Around the World 62
2.1 Introduction 63
2.2 Four Main Categories of Rainfed Farming Systems 64
2.3 Two Archetypes 65
2.4 Effect of Biophysical Factors on System Intensity and Productivity 66
2.4.1 Climate and Available Moisture 66
2.4.2 Drought Risk 67
2.4.3 Water Availability 69
2.4.3.1 Conservation Agriculture 70
2.4.3.2 Planting Pits 70
2.4.3.3 Water Control Structures 71
2.4.4 Soil Quality 71
2.5 The Effect of Social and Economic Factors on System Intensity and Productivity 72
2.5.1 Marketing Margins and the Purpose of Crop Production 72
2.5.2 Market Access 74
2.5.3 Tenure Status and Property Rights 74
2.5.4 Migration and Remittances 75
2.5.5 Policies and Institutions 76
2.6 Interrelationships Among Factors and Their Effect on System Intensity and Productivity 77
2.7 Farmer’s Practices 78
2.7.1 Crop Selection and Rotations 79
2.7.2 Livestock, Feed and Fodder 80
2.7.2.1 Livestock Produce Meat, Dairy, Eggs, Wool and Hides 80
2.7.2.2 Livestock Are a Source of Draft Power 80
2.7.2.3 Livestock Consume Crop Residues, Feed or Fodder Crops 81
2.7.2.4 Livestock Produce Manure, Which Has Multiple Uses 81
2.7.2.5 Livestock Are a Store of Value 82
2.7.2.6 Livestock Are Sources of Air and Water Pollution 82
2.7.3 Conservation Agriculture15 83
2.7.3.1 Conservation Agriculture in Latin America 83
2.7.3.2 Conservation Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa 83
2.7.3.3 Conservation Agriculture in China 84
2.8 Main Rainfed Farming Systems 85
2.8.1 High-Latitude Rainfed Systems with Cold Winters 85
2.8.2 Mid-Latitude Rainfed Systems with Mild Winters 85
2.8.2.1 Mediterranean-Type Climates 85
2.8.2.2 Year-Round Rainfall 86
2.8.3 Subtropical and Tropical Rainfed Highland Farm Systems in Dry Areas 87
2.8.4 Semi-Arid Tropical and Subtropical Farming Systems 87
2.9 Conclusions 88
References 89
Chapter 3: A Systems Approach to Climate Risk in Rainfed Farming Systems 92
3.1 Introduction – Climate Risk and Systems Thinking 92
3.1.1 What Is Meant by Systems Thinking in Agriculture? 95
3.2 Using Systems Approaches from Natural Sciences to Understand Weather, Climate Risk and Farming Systems 97
3.2.1 Climate at Different Scales 97
3.2.2 Concepts of Weather, Climate and Climate Change 98
3.2.3 Weather and Climate Forecasting 99
3.2.4 Climate Change 100
3.3 Using Systems Engineering to Manage Climate Risk 103
3.4 Example from Liverpool Plains in NSW 104
3.5 Example of Corn Decision Making from the Philippines 108
3.6 Soft Systems 111
3.7 Conclusion 113
References 114
Chapter 4: Water Availability and Use in Rainfed Farming Systems 118
4.1 Introduction 119
4.2 Maximising Water Availability for Crops and Pastures and Water Use Efficiency 119
4.2.1 Water Use Efficiency (See Also Chap. 1) 119
4.2.2 Effects of Climate on Water Availability 121
4.2.2.1 Example from India 121
4.2.2.2 Example from Southern Africa 123
4.2.3 Effects of Climate Change 123
4.2.4 Effects of Soil Types on Water Availability 124
4.2.4.1 Soil Water Storage Capacity 124
4.2.4.2 Subsoil Constraints 125
4.2.5 Maximising Water Availability to Crops by Minimising Losses 125
4.2.5.1 Management of Stubble, Tillage and Weeds to Minimise Water Loss 127
4.2.5.2 Optimising Use of Crop Nutrients 127
4.2.5.3 Effects of Previous Crops 128
4.3 Strategies to Increase Water Delivery and Capture 129
4.3.1 Ex-Field Rainwater Harvesting 129
4.3.2 In-Field Rainwater Harvesting 130
4.3.3 Capturing More Rainfall by Reducing Runoff and Evaporation and Increasing Infiltration 131
4.4 Strategies to Increase the Proportion of Water Available for Crop Production 134
4.4.1 Increase Rooting Depth 134
4.4.2 Spatial Management of Water Supply and Use 135
4.4.2.1 Identifying and Managing Subsoil Constraints 135
4.4.2.2 Why Use EM Technology? 135
4.4.2.3 The Need for Calibration Against Measured Soil Properties 135
4.4.3 Intercropping Increases Radiation Use Efficiency and Water Use Efficiency 137
4.5 Strategies to Increase the Efficiency of Conversion of Water to Usable Product 138
4.5.1 The Design of Crops for Efficient Water Use 138
4.5.2 Reliance on Deep Stored Soil Water Beyond the Soil Evaporation Zone 139
4.6 Example of Spatial Management of the Crop with Respect to Its Water Supply 139
4.6.1 Birchip, Victoria, Australia 139
4.7 Conclusions 141
References 145
Chapter 5: Plant Nutrient Management in Rainfed Farming Systems 150
5.1 Introduction 151
5.2 Climate, Soils, Cropping, and Socioeconomic Conditions 152
5.3 Balanced Use of Nutrients in Rainfed Cropping Systems 154
5.4 Sustaining Soil Fertility and Related Physical Properties 155
5.4.1 Nutrients for Crop Production 155
5.4.2 Soil Physical Properties 156
5.5 Crop Nutrients as Influenced by Rainfall and Soil Moisture 157
5.6 Use of Legumes in Crop Sequences 158
5.7 Conclusions 160
References 162
Chapter 6: Principles and Management of Soil Biological Factors for Sustainable Rainfed Farming Systems 165
6.1 Introduction 165
6.2 Importance of Moisture, Temperature and Carbon Supply on Biological Activity in Soil 166
6.3 Water Use Efficiency (WUE) 170
6.4 Beneficial Effects of Soil Biota on Factors Influencing Productivity and Sustainability 171
6.4.1 Biological Nitrogen Fixation 171
6.4.1.1 Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation 171
6.4.1.2 Non-symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation (NSNF) 172
6.4.2 Nutrient Cycling and Supply 175
6.4.3 Soil Structure 178
6.4.4 Plant Growth and Root Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) 179
6.4.5 Biological Control of Root Diseases 179
6.4.6 Suppression of Root Disease 181
6.4.7 Influence of Break Crops on Soil Biota 184
6.4.8 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) 185
6.5 Soil Fauna in Rainfed Agriculture 186
6.6 Detrimental Effects of Soil Biota on Productivity and Sustainability 187
6.6.1 Soil-Borne Root Pathogens 187
6.6.2 Detrimental Soil Bacteria 190
6.7 Conservation Farming and Soil Biota 190
6.8 Conclusions 191
References 193
Chapter 7: Technological Change in Rainfed Farming Systems 201
7.1 Introduction 201
7.1.1 Effects of Technological Change 202
7.2 Technology Use in Rainfed Farming Systems 203
7.3 How Rainfed Farming Systems Have Benefited from Technological Innovation 207
7.3.1 Plant Improvement 207
7.3.2 Agronomic Practices 210
7.3.2.1 Tillage, No-Till and Residue Management 210
7.3.2.2 Use of Cover Crops 212
7.3.2.3 Pest Control 212
Weed Control 213
Insect, Disease and Nematode Control 214
7.3.2.4 Plant Nutrition and Fertiliser Use 215
7.3.2.5 Agricultural Mechanisation and Automation 216
7.3.2.6 Precision of Field Operations 216
7.3.3 Modelling – A Tool for Improved Efficiency in Agriculture 217
7.3.4 Technological Aids to Farm Business Decision Making 220
7.3.5 Research and Development and the Resultant Technological Change 221
7.4 Emerging Technologies That May Improve Rainfed Farming Systems 221
7.4.1 Biotechnologies 222
7.4.2 Nutrient Recovery – ‘Closing the Loop’ 223
7.4.3 Agronomic and Livestock Husbandry Technology 224
7.5 Conclusion 224
References 225
Chapter 8: Weed Management in Rainfed Agricultural Systems 231
8.1 Introduction 231
8.2 Management of Weeds in Rainfed Farming Systems 233
8.3 Agricultural Management Practices and Changes in Weed Populations 236
8.3.1 Changes in Rotations 236
8.3.2 Change in Tillage Systems 237
8.3.3 Development of Herbicide Resistance in Weeds 238
8.4 Managing the Change in Weed Spectrum 239
8.4.1 Development of New Herbicides 239
8.4.2 Changes in Cropping System Structure and Operation 240
8.4.2.1 Wider Row Spacing in Pulse Crops 240
8.4.2.2 More Diverse Rotations 240
8.4.3 Using Genomics in Weed Management 241
8.4.4 Modelling and Decision Making in Weed Management 241
8.5 Precision Weed Control 242
8.5.1 Sensor-Based Systems 243
8.5.2 Map-Based Systems 243
8.5.3 Precision Mechanical Weed Control 244
8.6 Conclusion 244
References 245
Chapter 9: Principles and Methods for Sustainable Disease Management in Rainfed Agricultural Systems 249
9.1 Introduction 249
9.2 Epidemiology and Management 251
9.2.1 Thresholds for Management – When Should Something Be Done? 252
9.2.2 Management Tools 253
9.2.2.1 Pathogen Exclusion 253
9.2.2.2 Cultural Methods 254
Residue Removal 254
Tillage 254
Crop Rotation 255
Weed Management 256
Time of Sowing 256
9.2.2.3 Nutrient and Water Management 257
9.2.2.4 Resistance and Tolerance 258
Types of Resistance 258
9.2.2.5 Fungicides 259
9.2.2.6 Biological Control 260
9.2.2.7 Bringing It All Together – Integrated Disease Management 261
9.2.3 The Role of Information in Disease Management 262
9.3 Summary and Conclusion 264
References 265
Chapter 10: Sustainable Pest Management in Rainfed Farming Systems 268
10.1 Introduction 269
10.2 Losses in Value of Production and in Yields Due to Pests Across Regions and Crops 269
10.3 Insect Pest Damage 271
10.4 Regional Differences in Pests Causing Damage 271
10.5 Integrated Pest Management 274
10.6 Economic Thresholds 274
10.7 Chemical Control 275
10.8 Biological Control 277
10.9 Host Plant Resistance 278
10.10 Managing Crop Complexity 279
10.11 Tillage 280
10.12 Conclusions 281
References 281
Chapter 11: Interactions Between Crop and Livestock Activities in Rainfed Farming Systems 286
11.1 Introduction 286
11.2 A Geographical Perspective of Crop–Livestock Systems 287
11.3 Relationships Between Livestock and Crop Enterprises 292
11.4 Some Examples of Crop–Livestock Systems 296
11.4.1 Overview 296
11.4.2 System Examples 298
11.4.2.1 System Examples A and B – Mixed Farming Systems in Southern Australia (A) and Some Comparisons with North America (B) 298
11.4.2.2 System Example C – Agricultural Systems in China and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) 301
11.4.2.3 System Example D – Rangelands and Croplands in a Semi-Arid Region of North Africa (Eritrea) 303
11.5 The Dynamics of Mixed and Integrated Farming Systems 304
11.6 Enhancing the Future Success of Crop–Livestock Systems 307
11.7 Conclusions 310
References 311
Chapter 12: Economic and Social Influences on the Nature, Functioning and Sustainability of Rainfed Farming Systems 314
12.1 Introduction 314
12.2 The ‘Whole-Farm’ Business System 315
12.2.1 Goals of the Farm Family 315
12.2.2 Influences on Individual Goals and the Management of the Farm System 315
12.2.2.1 Physical Factors 316
12.2.2.2 Technological Factors 317
12.2.2.3 Social or Family Factors 318
12.2.2.4 Political or Institutional 319
12.2.2.5 Economic Factors 322
12.2.3 Risk Management 325
12.2.4 Whole-Farm Planning and Systems Approach to Managing Farms 326
12.2.4.1 Levels of Decision Making 327
12.2.4.2 Processes of Decision Making 328
12.2.4.3 Dimensions of Management 328
12.3 Systems Thinking as a Tool of Land Managers 330
12.4 Conclusion 332
References 332
Chapter 13: Farming Systems Design 335
13.1 Introduction 335
13.1.1 Background 336
13.1.2 Measures of Future Success 337
13.2 Goals for Next Generation Systems 338
13.2.1 Cropping Systems to Meet Both Profitable Food and Environmental Resource Objectives 339
13.2.2 Markets, and Food as a Source of Health 340
13.2.3 Cropping Systems Designed for Value-Adding 342
13.2.4 Rise of Regional Cities 344
13.2.5 Cropping Systems for Climate Change 345
13.3 Designing Future Systems 347
References 350
Chapter 14: Soil Organic Carbon – Role in Rainfed Farming Systems 352
14.1 Introduction 353
14.2 The Carbon Balance in Agricultural Soils 354
14.2.1 Potential SOC Content 355
14.2.2 Attainable SOC Content 357
14.2.3 Actual SOC Content 358
14.3 Soil Organic Carbon Fractions and Their Function 363
14.3.1 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 365
14.3.2 Soil Structure and Water Relations 366
14.3.3 Energy for Biological Processes 367
14.3.3.1 Provision of Nutrients 368
14.4 Monitoring Soil Organic Matter 370
14.5 Conclusions 372
References 373
Part II: Rainfed Farming System Worldwide - Operation and Management 375
Chapter 15: Rainfed Farming Systems in the West Asia–North Africa (WANA) Region 376
15.1 Introduction: Background to Agriculture in WANA Region 377
15.2 Climatic Environments 380
15.3 Soil Resources 382
15.4 Farming Systems in WANA 384
15.5 Improving Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition 388
15.5.1 Fertiliser Use 388
15.5.2 Recent Research in Crop Nutrition 389
15.5.3 Implications for Improved Management 391
15.6 Enhancing Water Use Efficiency in Rainfed Cropping Systems 392
15.6.1 Other Rainfed Management Factors 393
15.7 Sustainability of Rainfed Mediterranean Farming Systems 393
15.7.1 Conclusions on Sustainability from Long-Term Rotation Trials 394
15.7.2 Economic Assessment of Rotations 396
15.7.3 Soil Quality in Rainfed Farming Systems 396
15.7.4 Implications for Cropping Systems 398
15.8 Concluding Remarks 398
References 400
Chapter 16: Rainfed Farming Systems in South Africa 405
16.1 Introduction 406
16.1.1 Topographic, Climatic and Soil Factors Influencing Rain-Fed Farming Systems in South Africa 406
16.1.1.1 Topography 406
16.1.1.2 Climate 407
16.1.1.3 Soils 408
16.1.2 External Factors Affecting Rainfed Crop Production Systems in South Africa 409
16.1.2.1 Legislative Influences 410
16.1.2.2 Local and International Market Influences 410
16.2 Rainfed Farming Systems in the Summer Rainfall Region 411
16.2.1 Interior Plateau – General 411
16.2.2 Interior Plateau – Eastern Region 412
16.2.2.1 Background 412
16.2.2.2 Cropping Systems 413
16.2.3 Interior Plateau – Central Region 415
16.2.3.1 Background 415
16.2.3.2 Cropping Systems 415
16.2.4 Interior Plateau – Western Region 417
16.2.4.1 Background 417
16.2.4.2 Cropping Systems 417
16.2.5 Marginal Zone (Summer Rainfall) 419
16.2.5.1 Sugar Cane 419
16.2.5.2 Summer Grains 420
16.2.6 Summary of the Summer Rainfall Region 420
16.3 Rainfed Farming Systems in the Winter- and All-Year Rainfall Regions 421
16.3.1 Climate 422
16.3.2 Soils 423
16.3.3 Crop and Crop–Pasture Systems in the Winter and All-Year Rainfall Areas 423
16.3.3.1 Crops and Pastures in the Winter and All-Year Region 424
16.3.3.2 Crop Rotation 424
16.3.3.3 Tillage Practices 426
16.3.3.4 Farm Size 426
16.3.3.5 Division of Farm Land 426
16.3.3.6 Livestock Production 427
16.3.3.7 Sustainability of Farming Systems 428
16.3.4 Summary of Winter and Year-Round Rainfall Regions 428
16.4 Communal Rainfed Farming Systems 429
16.4.1 Introduction 429
16.4.2 A Background to Communal Areas in SA 431
16.4.3 Characteristics of Communal Systems 432
16.4.3.1 Livestock Production 432
16.4.3.2 Crop Production 434
16.4.4 Inputs into Communal Systems 435
16.4.5 Outputs from Communal Systems 437
16.4.6 Summary of Communal Systems 438
16.5 Summary 439
References 441
Chapter 17: Farming Systems, Emerging Farmers and Land Reform in the Limpopo Province of South Africa 443
17.1 Introduction 444
17.2 Contrasting Agricultural Systems in South Africa 445
17.3 The Dual Agricultural Sectors 446
17.3.1 Commercial Farming 446
17.3.2 Subsistence or Smallholder Farming 447
17.3.2.1 Cropping 447
17.3.2.2 Livestock 447
17.4 The Influence of Land Reform Policies on the Agricultural Sector 448
17.5 The Emerging Farmer Sector 450
17.6 Approaches for Developing Opportunities for the Emerging Farmer Sector 451
17.6.1 Motivation and Skills 452
17.6.2 Policies That Support Appropriate Interventions 453
17.6.3 Being Realistic About Farm Size and Economic Success 453
17.6.4 Rural Infrastructure Enabling Other Opportunities 454
17.7 Improving Research, Development and Policy 454
17.7.1 The Role of Government 455
17.7.2 The Role of the Private Sector 456
17.7.3 Commercialisation of Smallholders – The Bohlobela Model 456
17.8 Summary and Conclusions 457
References 459
Chapter 18: Modernisation of Eritrean Rainfed Farming Systems Through a Conservation Farming Systems Approach 460
18.1 Introduction 461
18.2 Eritrean Farming Systems and Prospects for Conservation Farming 462
18.2.1 Current Cropping Practice 462
18.2.2 Socio-Economic Barriers to Conservation Farming 465
18.2.3 Research and Extension Capacity 466
18.2.4 Availability and Adaptability of New Equipment for Proven Practices 466
18.3 Development of Conservation Farming Systems Using the Australian Experience 468
18.4 Developing Improved Systems for Eritrea 469
18.5 Farmer Response to Change: A World Apart or Shaped by the Farming Environment? 472
18.6 Conclusions 473
References 474
Chapter 19: Rainfed Farming Systems on the Canadian Prairies 476
19.1 Introduction 477
19.1.1 Dominant Forces Shaping the Development of Agriculture on the Prairies 477
19.1.2 Extent and Importance of the Prairies for Canadian Agriculture 478
19.1.3 Overview of Climate and Major Soil Zones on the Prairies 478
19.2 Development of Cropping Systems on the Prairies 479
19.2.1 The Beginning 479
19.2.2 Emerging Problems with Agricultural Sustainability on the Prairies 480
19.2.3 Improvements in Technology Lead to Changes in Farming Systems 481
19.2.4 The Current Basis for the Future 482
19.3 Structure and Operation of Current Farming Systems on the Canadian Prairies 482
19.3.1 Dairy Farming System 483
19.3.2 Hog Farming Systems 483
19.3.3 Beef Cattle Farming Systems 484
19.3.4 Annual Crop Farming Systems 485
19.3.5 Summary of Prairie Farming Systems 486
19.4 Achieving Efficiency, Productivity and Sustainability 486
19.4.1 Addressing Soil Degradation and Loss of Soil Fertility on the Prairies 487
19.4.2 Enhancing Crop Water Use Efficiency 488
19.4.2.1 Dynamics of Water in Rainfed Farming Systems on the Prairies 488
19.4.2.2 Strategies to Increase Crop Water Use on the Prairies 489
19.4.2.3 Strategies to Increase Crop Water Use Efficiency (WUE) 490
19.4.2.4 Factors under the Control of Prairie Grain Producers that affect WU and WUE 491
19.4.3 Nitrogen Use Efficiency 492
19.4.3.1 Nitrogen Forms, Timing and Placement 493
19.4.3.2 Major Pathways of Nitrogen Losses 494
19.4.3.3 Factors Affecting Nitrogen Use Efficiency 495
19.4.3.4 Strategies to Improve Nitrogen Use Efficiency 495
19.4.4 Management of Plant Diseases and Weeds 497
19.4.4.1 Plant Diseases 497
19.4.4.2 Weed Management 498
19.5 Economic and Energy Considerations 500
19.5.1 Overview of Economics of Cropping Systems 500
19.5.1.1 Brown Soil Zone (Mean Annual Precipitation 334 mm) 500
Crop–Fallow vs. Continuous Cropping 500
Green Manure vs. Fallow 502
Impact of Conservation Tillage 502
19.5.1.2 Dark Brown Soil Zone (Mean Annual Precipitation 413 mm) 503
19.5.1.3 Black and Gray Soil Zones Mean Annual Precipitation 427–467 mm 504
19.5.1.4 Summary of Economics Findings 504
19.5.2 Energy Use and Energy Use Efficiency 504
19.5.2.1 Historical Perspective of Energy Use for Crop Production 504
19.5.2.2 Estimates of Energy Use and Energy Use Efficiency on the Canadian Prairies 505
19.5.3 Agriculture as a Renewable Energy Source 507
19.6 Prairie Farming Systems – Overview 508
19.6.1 Productivity and Sustainability 508
19.6.2 Profitability and Flexibility 510
19.6.3 Sustainability of Rural Areas 511
19.7 What Does the Future Hold for Rainfed Production Systems on the Canadian Prairies? 511
19.7.1 Economic and Energy Realities 512
19.7.2 Farming Systems 513
References 514
Chapter 20: Rainfed Farming Systems in the USA 520
20.1 Introduction 521
20.1.1 Climate of the USA 521
20.1.2 Soils of the USA 522
20.1.3 Contrasting Characteristics of Agricultural Regions in the USA 524
20.2 Great Plains Wheat–Sorghum–Cattle Region 525
20.2.1 Climate and Soils 525
20.2.2 Structure and Characteristics of Farming Systems 526
20.2.3 Efficiency, Productivity, and Sustainability 528
20.2.3.1 Evolution of Cropping Systems 528
20.2.3.2 Efficiency of Water Use 529
20.2.3.3 System Improvements Through Diversification and No-Till 530
20.2.4 Economic Sustainability Through System Design and Management 530
20.2.5 Integration of Enterprises 532
20.2.6 Natural Resource Issues 534
20.2.7 Summary of Issues 534
20.3 Midwestern Corn–Soybean–Hog Region 534
20.3.1 Structure and Characteristics of System 534
20.3.1.1 Climate and Soils 535
20.3.1.2 Historical Conditions 536
20.3.2 Efficiency, Productivity, and Sustainability 537
20.3.3 Economic Sustainability Through System Design and Management 539
20.3.4 Soil Fertility Management 540
20.3.5 Pest and Disease Management 541
20.3.6 Weed Management 542
20.3.7 Integration of Enterprises and Land Management 542
20.3.8 Biofuels 543
20.3.9 Conservation Practices 544
20.3.10 Summary of Issues 545
20.4 Southern Cotton–Peanut–Poultry Region 545
20.4.1 Structure and Characteristics of System 545
20.4.2 Efficiency, Productivity, and Sustainability 546
20.4.3 Soil Fertility Management 548
20.4.4 Pest and Disease Management 549
20.4.5 Weed Management 550
20.4.6 Integration of Enterprises 551
20.4.7 Summary of Issues 553
20.5 Coastal Diversified Crops–Dairy Region 554
20.5.1 Structure and Characteristics of System 554
20.5.2 Efficiency, Productivity, and Sustainability 555
20.5.3 Soil Fertility Management 557
20.5.4 Pest and Disease Management 558
20.5.5 Weed Management 559
20.5.6 Integration of Enterprises 560
20.5.7 Summary of Issues 560
20.6 Conclusions 561
References 562
Chapter 21: Rainfed Agroecosystems in South America 570
21.1 Introduction 571
21.2 An Overview of South American Rainfed Agriculture 572
21.2.1 Four Rainfed Agricultural Regions 573
21.2.1.1 Pampas Region of Argentina 573
21.2.1.2 Cerrado Region of Brazil 577
21.2.1.3 Llanos or Plains of Colombia, Venezuela, and Guyana 578
21.2.1.4 Andean Puna and Intermountain Valleys of the Andean Zone 579
21.2.1.5 Other Rainfed Farming Regions 581
21.3 Quantitative Analysis of Complex Systems: The Pampas Region 582
21.4 Case Study: Emergy Analysis of a Farming System 585
21.4.1 Methodology 586
21.4.1.1 The Cattle Grazing System 586
21.4.1.2 Using the Diagrams 588
21.4.1.3 Using the Tables 590
21.4.2 Emergy Environmental Value 595
21.4.3 Cross-Scale 11 and Complexity Accounting 596
21.4.3.1 The Importance of an Emergy National Analysis 597
21.4.4 Comparison of Performance of Selected Systems 602
21.4.4.1 Emergy and Fair Trade 604
21.4.4.2 The Role of Rain in the Investigated Systems 605
21.5 Summary and Conclusions 606
References 607
Chapter 22: Important Rainfed Farming Systems of South Asia 611
22.1 Introduction 611
22.2 Features of South Asian Systems 612
22.2.1 The Role of Animals 612
22.2.2 Use of Fallowing 613
22.2.3 Use of Inter-Cropping, Mixed Cropping, and Relay Cropping 613
22.2.3.1 Mixed Cropping 614
22.2.3.2 Intercropping 614
22.2.3.3 Relay Cropping 614
22.2.4 Use of Labour in Farm Operations 615
22.2.5 Use of Dung for Cooking and Possibilities for Other Sources of Fuel 615
22.2.6 Crop Rotations 616
22.2.7 Use of Legumes 616
22.2.8 Water Harvesting 616
22.2.9 Importance of Off-Farm Income 618
22.2.10 Use of New Crop Varieties and Modern Technology 618
22.3 Afghanistan 619
22.4 Pakistan 620
22.4.1 Dryland Plateau 620
22.4.1.1 Rainfall Zones 621
22.4.1.2 Farm Size and Land Types 622
22.4.1.3 Crops Grown and Cropping Patterns 622
22.4.1.4 Cropping Intensity 623
22.4.1.5 Mixed and Intercropping Systems 624
22.4.1.6 Livestock 625
22.4.1.7 Fodder Systems 626
22.4.1.8 Other Major Sources of Income 627
22.4.1.9 Changes Over the Last Two Decades 627
22.4.2 Pakistan Rainfed Farming Systems in the Mountains 628
22.5 India 628
22.5.1 Rice-Based Rainfed Systems 631
22.5.2 Oilseed-Based Rainfed Systems 633
22.5.3 Pulse-Based Rainfed Systems 633
22.5.4 Cotton-Based Rainfed Systems 634
22.5.5 Cereal-Based Rainfed Systems 634
22.6 Bangladesh 637
22.6.1 The Double Rice Cropping Aus – T. aman System 639
22.6.2 Deepwater B. aman Systems 641
22.6.3 Recent Changes in Bangladesh 642
22.7 Nepal 643
22.7.1 Cropping Systems in the Mid-Hill Zones 644
22.8 Summary and Conclusions 646
References 647
Chapter 23: Rainfed Farming Systems in the Loess Plateau of China 650
23.1 Introduction 651
23.2 Climate, Soils, Topography, Crops and Rotations 652
23.3 Characteristics of Rainfed Farming Systems in the Loess Plateau of China 657
23.3.1 Climate, Soil and Topography 657
23.3.2 Crop Production Potential 658
23.3.3 Structure and Operation of Rainfed Farming Systems in the Loess Plateau 658
23.4 Management for Productivity and Sustainability of Rainfed Farming Systems in the Loess Plateau 660
23.4.1 Crop Improvement 661
23.4.2 Land Management and Changing Farming Systems 662
23.4.3 Crop Rotations 662
23.4.4 Plastic Mulching4 664
23.4.5 Conservation Tillage 665
23.4.6 Soil Fertility Management 667
23.4.7 Rainwater Harvesting Agriculture 669
23.5 Conclusions, Challenges and Future Prospects in the Rainfed Farming Systems of Loess Plateau of China 670
23.5.1 The Current Situation and Challenges 670
23.5.2 Future Prospects 671
23.5.2.1 Integrated Livestock-Cropping Systems 671
23.5.2.2 Water Saving Agriculture 672
23.5.2.3 Conservation Agriculture 672
23.6 Conclusion 672
References 674
Chapter 24: Farming Systems in the Valleys of Central Tibet 677
24.1 Introduction 678
24.2 Resource Base – Human and Agroecological 679
24.3 Agriculture in the Crop-Dominated Zone 681
24.3.1 Crops and Rotations 681
24.3.2 Irrigation 681
24.3.3 Cultivation 682
24.3.4 Planting 683
24.3.5 Fertiliser Use 683
24.3.6 Weed and Pest Control 683
24.3.7 Harvest 684
24.3.8 Crop Yields 684
24.4 Animal Husbandry in the Crop-Dominated Zone 685
24.4.1 Animals Kept 685
24.4.2 Animal Feed 686
24.4.3 Production Levels 686
24.5 Boosting Grain and Dairy Production in Tibet 686
24.5.1 Introduction 686
24.5.2 Grain Production 687
24.5.2.1 Cereal Varieties 687
24.5.2.2 Irrigation Practice 687
24.5.2.3 Nutrition and Soil Factors 687
24.5.2.4 Weeds 688
24.5.2.5 Crop Planting 688
24.5.3 Dairy Production 689
24.5.3.1 Main Constraints 689
24.5.3.2 Simple Strategies to Boost Cattle Production 690
24.5.3.3 Opportunities for Better Integration of Crop and Livestock Production Systems 691
24.5.3.4 Socio-Economic Factors 693
References 694
Chapter 25: Rainfed Farming Systems of North-Eastern Australia 696
25.1 Introduction 696
25.2 Climate 698
25.2.1 Rainfall and Evaporation 698
25.2.2 Temperature 700
25.2.3 Planting Options in Regard to Temperature and Rainfall 700
25.3 Soils 702
25.4 Limitations to Rainfed Cropping in the North-Eastern Region 703
25.4.1 Practices for Mitigation of Water Supply Limitations 703
25.4.1.1 Fallowing 703
25.4.1.2 Plant Population Density and Planting Geometry 704
25.4.1.3 Cultivar Selection 705
25.5 Practices for Mitigation of Nutrient Limitations 706
25.6 Use of Crop Simulation and Decision Support Systems 708
25.7 Animal Production in Association with Cropping 711
25.8 Conclusions 713
References 714
Chapter 26: Diversity and Evolution of Rainfed Farming Systems in Southern Australia 719
26.1 Introduction 719
26.2 The International Context 721
26.2.1 The World-Wide Impetus for Separation and Intensification of Cropping and Livestock Production 721
26.2.2 The Situation in Southern Australia 722
26.3 Mixed Farming Systems in Southern Australia – An Overview of Industry Trends 723
26.3.1 A Brief History 723
26.3.2 Industry Production and Profitability Trends 723
26.4 Farming System Evolution Through Technology and Innovation 727
26.4.1 Genetics for Improved Plant and Animal Performance 728
26.4.2 Improvements in Plant and Animal Nutrition 730
26.4.3 Disease Control – Break Crops and Animal Health 731
26.4.4 Herbicides and Herbicide-Tolerant Crops 732
26.4.5 Conservation Agriculture, Zone Management and Precision Agriculture 733
26.4.6 Annual and Perennial Phased Pastures and a Possible Role for Woody Perennials 734
26.4.7 Benchmarks of Performance 736
26.5 Factors Influencing System Structure and Function – Perspectives from Agricultural Consultants 737
26.5.1 Biophysical Factors 737
26.5.2 Technical Factors 737
26.5.3 Economic Factors of the Enterprise Mix 739
26.5.4 Social Factors 743
26.6 Regional and Enterprise Diversity 743
26.6.1 Northern Sandplains of Western Australia 745
26.6.1.1 Case Study – Ian Blayney, Mixed Farmer 746
26.6.1.2 Case Study – Brian and Tracy McAlpine, Specialist Cropping 747
26.6.2 Southern NSW Slopes and Plains 749
26.6.2.1 Case Study – Hart Brothers, Mixed Farmers 750
26.6.2.2 Case Study – Di and Warwick Holding, Specialist Croppers 751
26.6.3 Case-Study Summary 753
26.7 Conclusions and Future Issues 753
References 755
Part III: Evaluation and improvement of rainfed farming systems 759
Chapter 27: Using Monitoring and Evaluation for Continuous Improvement of Rainfed Farming Systems 760
27.1 Introduction 760
27.2 “Sustainability” of Rainfed Farming Systems 762
27.2.1 Indicators for Sustainability in Farming Systems 762
27.2.2 Sustainability Indicators and Issues of Scale 764
27.3 Resource Condition Targets and Management Actions 766
27.3.1 Biophysical Resource Condition Targets and Associated Management Actions 766
27.3.2 Economic and Business Targets and Associated Management Actions 767
27.3.3 Personal Goals and Associated Management Actions 767
27.4 Frameworks Used for Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation of Farming Systems 768
27.4.1 On-Farm Monitoring 768
27.4.1.1 Example 1: Dryland Salinity Tool for the Australian Grains Industry 770
27.4.2 Property Management Planning 771
27.4.3 Self-Assessment Checklists 771
27.5 Market-Driven Farm Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation Approaches 773
27.5.1 On-Farm Quality Assurance (QA) Systems 773
27.5.1.1 What is an Environmental Management System (EMS)? 774
27.5.1.2 What Is Driving EMS in Agriculture? 775
EMS in Action 775
27.5.1.3 Where Do on-Farm Monitoring and Evaluation Fit into the EMS Process? 776
27.6 Conclusion 776
References 777
Chapter 28: More from Less – Improvements in Precipitation Use Efficiency in Western Australian Wheat Production 780
28.1 Introduction 781
28.2 Agronomic Advances for Wheat Improvement 783
28.2.1 Early Planting 783
28.2.2 Weed Control 784
28.2.3 Nutrition 784
28.2.4 Tillage 785
28.2.5 Rotations 785
28.2.6 Waterlogging 786
28.3 Genetic Advances for Wheat Improvement 786
28.3.1 Phenological Adaptation 786
28.3.2 Early Vigour 786
28.3.3 Osmotic Adjustment 787
28.3.4 Deep Roots 787
28.3.5 Transpiration Efficiency 788
28.3.6 Assimilate Redistribution 788
28.3.7 Interaction Between Breeding, Environment and Management 788
28.4 Conclusions 790
References 790
Chapter 29: Transforming Farming Systems: Expanding the Production of Soybeans in Ontario 794
29.1 Introduction 795
29.2 Background 795
29.2.1 Soybean Introduction into New Areas 797
29.2.2 Soybean Expansion 799
29.3 Discussion 803
References 805
Chapter 30: The Social Dimensions of Mixed Farming Systems 807
30.1 Introduction 807
30.1.1 Types of Decisions 810
30.2 Changing Mixed Farming Systems 812
30.2.1 Hassle Reduction (Simplicity) 814
30.2.2 Labour 815
30.2.3 Recreation 815
30.2.4 Personal Preference for an Enterprise 815
30.3 The Role of Drought 816
30.3.1 The Difficulty of Decision Making 816
30.3.2 Choosing an Appropriate Enterprise Mix 817
30.3.3 Decision-Making Assistance 818
30.4 Implications for Extension 819
30.4.1 Providing Information and Advice 819
30.4.1.1 Financial and Business Management 820
30.4.1.2 Best Management Practices in the Field and Beyond 820
30.4.1.3 Sector and Regional Information 820
30.4.2 Providing a Forum for Story Telling 821
30.4.3 Providing Strategies and Tools for Streamlining Complex Systems 821
30.5 Conclusions 822
References 823
Chapter 31: A Study in the Development of a Farm System on the Canadian Prairies 824
31.1 Introduction 824
31.2 Climatic and Weather Factors 825
31.3 Landscape and Soils 826
31.4 Early Development and Changes to Farm System, Enterprises and Management 829
31.5 Drivers of Change in Recent Years 830
31.5.1 On the Home Farm 830
31.5.2 Drivers of Change in Newly Acquired Land 831
31.6 The Pathways Chosen to Improve the System and Achieve the Family’s Goals of Profitability and Sustainability 832
31.7 Putting It All Together – Managing the Whole 834
31.7.1 The Timing of Farm Operations 834
31.7.2 Using Herbicide-Tolerant Canola 835
31.7.3 Management Goals 837
31.8 Current Situation and Looking to the Future 838
31.9 Conclusions 839
Chapter 32: Improving Traditional Crop-Pasture Farming Systems with Lucerne South East Australia 841
32.1 Introduction 841
32.1.1 Why Make the Change? 842
32.2 Farm Background 843
32.3 Fitting Lucerne into the Rotation 843
32.3.1 The Place of Lucerne in the Rotation 843
32.3.2 Effect of Lucerne on Cropping Intensity 844
32.3.3 Crop Yields and Grain Protein Content After Lucerne 845
32.3.4 Subsoil Moisture with Lucerne 846
32.3.5 Higher-Value Crops 846
32.3.6 Better Weed Control Carries over into Crops 846
32.3.7 Intercropping 847
32.3.8 Utilising Summer Rainfall 847
32.3.9 Personal Impacts on Life and Work 848
32.4 Establishing and Managing Lucerne 850
32.4.1 Establishing Lucerne 850
32.4.2 Managing Lucerne 850
32.4.2.1 Pure Lucerne or Lucerne–Annual Pasture Mix? 850
32.4.2.2 Length of the Lucerne Phase 851
32.4.2.3 Lucerne Chemical, Fertiliser and Lime Inputs 851
32.5 Lucerne and Livestock 852
32.5.1 Attitudes to Livestock 852
32.5.2 Stocking Rate 852
32.6 Lifting Profitability with Lucerne 853
32.6.1 Whole-Farm Profitability 853
32.6.1.1 Spreading Income Risk 854
32.6.2 Cropping Profitability 854
32.6.2.1 Crop Responses 854
32.6.2.2 Crop Selection and Intensity 855
32.6.3 Sheep and Cattle Profitability 855
32.7 Challenges 856
32.7.1 The Challenge from Intensive Cropping 856
32.7.2 Wind Erosion in Summer 856
32.7.3 Managing Establishment Failure 856
32.7.4 The Cost of Spring Establishment 857
32.7.5 Lucerne Removal 857
32.7.6 Sink Holes 857
32.7.7 Impacts of High Legume Diets on Animal Health 858
32.8 Conclusion 858
References 859
Chapter 33: Use of Conservation Agriculture to Improve Farming Systems in Developing Countries 860
33.1 Introduction 860
33.2 Toward Sustainable Management of Cropping Systems 861
33.3 Reasons to Invest in Conservation Agriculture 863
33.3.1 Short-Term Benefits 863
33.3.2 Medium- to Long-Term (5–10 Year) Benefit 863
33.4 Long-Term Experiments in Conservation Agriculture at CIMMYT 864
33.4.1 Rainfed Cropping Systems 864
33.4.2 Irrigated Cropping Systems 865
33.5 Extent of Farmer Adoption of Conservation Agriculture in Developing Countries 868
33.6 Implications for the Future 869
References 871
Chapter 34: Using Conservation Agriculture and Precision Agriculture to Improve a Farming System 873
34.1 Introduction 873
34.1.1 Conservation Agriculture (CA) 874
34.1.2 Precision Agriculture 874
34.2 Applying Conservation and Precision Agriculture 875
34.2.1 Balancing Nutrients and Matching Them to Crop Requirements 875
34.2.1.1 Nitrogen 875
34.2.1.2 Phosphorus and Potassium 876
34.2.1.3 Other Soil Limitations 877
34.3 Precision Agriculture 877
34.3.1 Precision Agriculture—The Technology 877
34.3.1.1 Yield Monitors 877
34.3.1.2 Protein Sensors 878
34.3.1.3 Soil Mapping with Electrical Conductivity 879
34.3.1.4 pH Mapping 881
34.3.1.5 Elevation Maps 882
34.3.1.6 Remote Sensing 882
34.3.1.7 Satellite Imagery 883
34.3.1.8 Aerial Photography 885
34.3.1.9 Ground Sensing of Crop Performance 885
34.3.2 Data Analysis 888
34.3.3 Disease Management 892
34.3.4 On-Farm Trials 892
34.3.5 The Economics of Precision Agriculture 893
34.4 Controlled Traffic Systems 893
34.5 Conclusion 896
References 897
Chapter 35: Risk Management Strategies and Decision Support Systems in Agriculture 899
35.1 Introduction 900
35.2 Risk Management in Agriculture 900
35.2.1 Farmers’ Attitudes Towards Risks 900
35.2.2 Sources of Risk Faced by Farmers 901
35.2.3 Risk Management Strategies Available to Farmers 902
35.2.4 Risk Management Strategies Used by Australian Farmers 903
35.3 Decision Support Systems in Agriculture 904
35.3.1 Decision Support Systems in Australian Agriculture 904
35.3.1.1 Reasons for Poor Adoption of DSS in Australian Agriculture 905
35.3.1.2 DSS and Computer Ownership 905
35.3.1.3 Mismatch Between DSS Developers and End-Users 905
35.3.1.4 Future Development of DSS 906
35.3.2 Modeling Applications in Australian Agriculture 907
35.4 A Case Study of Rainfed Farming Systems in Queensland 908
35.4.1 Farming Systems and Farming Systems Research in the Study Area 909
35.4.2 The Study 910
35.4.2.1 Preliminary Interviews 910
35.4.2.2 Focus Group Discussions 911
35.4.2.3 Expert Survey 912
35.4.2.4 Decision Support Systems Workshops 913
35.4.2.5 Seasonal Climate Risk Workshops 913
35.4.2.6 Designing a Decision Support System 914
35.5 Conclusion 914
References 915
Part IV: Research, Extension and Evolution in Rainfed Farming Systems 920
Chapter 36: The Emergence of ‘Farming Systems’ Approaches to Grains Research, Development and Extension 921
36.1 Introduction 921
36.1.1 Transfer-of-Technology Approaches to Research, Development and Extension 922
36.1.2 Participatory Approaches to Research, Development and Extension 923
36.2 Systems and Systems Thinking 924
36.2.1 Defining ‘Systems’ 925
36.2.2 Placing People Within Farming ‘Systems’ 926
36.2.3 Increasing Diversity with Participatory ‘Farming Systems’ Approaches 926
36.3 The Notion of Participation in Farming Systems Projects 927
36.4 Case Example: Farming Systems RDE in the Northern Grains Industries of Australia 929
36.4.1 Project Evaluation 931
36.4.2 Constraints to Using ‘Farming Systems’ Approaches 933
36.5 Conclusions 934
References 935
Chapter 37: Farmer Decision-Making in Rainfed Farming Systems 938
37.1 Introduction 938
37.2 A Changing Farming System 939
37.3 Information Transfer in Rainfed Farming Systems 940
37.3.1 Technology Adoption Process 940
37.3.2 How Do Farmers Make Decisions on Changes to Their Farming Systems? 941
37.4 The Development of Farm Consultancy Services 943
37.4.1 Types and Roles of Consultants 943
37.4.2 Reasons for Using a Consultant 944
37.4.3 Consultant–Client Relationships 945
37.4.4 The Development of Farming Systems Groups 946
37.4.5 The Development and Use of Decision Support Systems 946
37.5 A Case Study—Ag Consulting Co (ACC), The Yorke Peninsula Alkaline Soils Group (YPASG), Birchip Cropping Group (BCG) and the Development of Yield Prophet® 948
37.5.1 Ag Consulting Co (ACC) 948
37.5.2 Yorke Peninsula Alkaline Soils Group (YPASG) 950
37.5.3 Birchip Cropping Group (BCG) 951
37.5.4 Yield Prophet® —An Example of a Developing DSS 952
37.5.4.1 Use of Yield Prophet® to Assist in Decision Making 953
37.5.4.2 Assessment of Yield Prophet® Accuracy and Use by Farmers 954
37.5.4.3 Do Growers Continue to Use DSS as a Tool to Aid on-Farm Decision Making? 956
37.6 Conclusions 958
37.7 Appendix 959
37.8 Yield Prophet ® Explanation and Report Excerpts 11 959
References 962
Chapter 38: When Culture and Science Meet, the Tension Can Mount 964
38.1 Introduction 964
38.2 Factors in the Clash Between Science and Culture 966
38.2.1 Scribbles on a Piece of Paper 966
38.2.2 The I/We Factor 967
38.2.3 Limited Versus Unlimited Good 969
38.2.4 The Critical Mass Factor 970
38.3 Questions About the Clash 971
38.3.1 Is Change Organisable or Organic? 971
38.3.2 Can Even Taste Affect Change? 973
38.3.3 So the Plough Never Lies? 974
38.3.4 How Big Is an Office Magnet? 975
38.4 So What Is Happening? 975
38.4.1 The Injustice of Nutrient Transfer 975
38.4.2 Good Intentions, Not-So-Good Outcomes 976
38.4.3 The Rake, Match and Plough Syndrome 977
38.4.4 Appropriate Technology Conservation Farming 978
38.4.5 The City Conversion from Consumption to Production 979
38.4.6 The Politics of Agriculture 980
38.4.7 The Right Time and Place Factor 980
38.5 So Is Africa Destined to Remain a ‘Basket Case 3 ? 982
38.6 The Human Factor 983
38.7 Conclusion 984
References 984
Chapter 39: Advances in No-Till Farming Technologies and Soil Compaction Management in Rainfed Farming Systems 985
39.1 Introduction 985
39.2 Soil Openers for No-Till Sowing 986
39.3 Optimising Soil Physical Conditions for Plant Establishment 989
39.4 Interaction of Seed Drill Soil Openers with Covering Devices 990
39.5 Residue Management and Crop Establishment in No-Till 991
39.6 Taking No-Till to the Next Level 995
39.6.1 Economics 995
39.6.2 Stubble Retention and Cover Crops 995
39.7 Managing Soil Compaction in No-Till Systems 998
39.8 Improving the Seedbed Environment with No-Till and Controlled Traffic Farming 1000
39.9 Benefits of a Controlled Traffic Farming System 1001
39.10 Implementing Controlled Traffic Farming Using Precision Agriculture 1002
39.11 Conclusions and Challenges for the Future 1003
References 1006
Chapter 40: No-Tillage Agriculture in West Asia and North Africa 1009
40.1 Introduction 1009
40.2 Agriculture in WANA Region 1010
40.3 No-Till Systems 1011
40.4 Effect of No-Till Methods on Crop Production and Cropping Systems 1012
40.4.1 Grain Yields of Cereal Crops 1012
40.4.2 Yields of Row Crops 1013
40.4.3 Water Use Efficiency by Crops and Crop Diversification 1015
40.4.4 Weed and Disease Management 1016
40.4.5 Integrating Livestock and Crop Residue Management 1017
40.5 Effect of No-Till on Soil Quality 1018
40.5.1 Soils of WANA 1019
40.5.2 Water Conservation and Control of Evaporation 1019
40.5.3 Soil Erosion Management Using No-Till 1021
40.5.4 Water Dynamics in Soils 1022
40.5.5 Carbon Sequestration Under No-Till 1022
40.5.6 Aggregation Process 1023
40.5.7 Effect of Tillage System on Soil Compaction and Consolidation 1024
40.5.8 Soil Chemical and Biochemical Properties Under No-Till 1025
40.6 Economic Benefits: Putting Principles into Practice 1026
40.6.1 Production Costs and Returns Under No-Till 1027
40.6.2 Energy Consumption and Efficiency 1027
40.6.3 Machinery Development 1029
40.7 No-Till Sociology: Bridging Farmer and Scientific Knowledge 1029
40.8 Conclusions on Implementing No-Till in WANA 1030
References 1031
Part V: Farm Case Studies 1037
Chapter 41: A Comparison of Three Farms in South Australia 1038
41.1 Introduction 1038
41.2 Property 1 – Higher Rainfall (500 mm) 1039
41.2.1 Introducing the Business 1039
41.2.2 Issues Faced and Strategies Used to Manage Them 1041
41.2.2.1 Soil Erosion and Maintaining Soil Structure 1041
41.2.2.2 Plant Nutrient Management 1042
41.2.2.3 Efficiency of Use of Growing Season Rainfall 1042
41.2.2.4 Responsiveness to Seasons 1043
41.2.2.5 Risk Management 1043
41.2.2.6 Labour 1043
41.2.2.7 Communications 1043
41.2.3 Owners’ Assessment of the Changes in System Structure and Management 1044
41.2.3.1 Benefits of the New System 1044
41.2.3.2 Challenges of the New System 1044
41.2.4 Economic Impact of the Changes 1044
41.2.5 Future Plans 1048
41.2.6 Summary and Conclusions for Property 1 1048
41.3 Property 2 – Medium Rainfall (350–450 mm) 1048
41.3.1 Introducing the Business 1048
41.3.1.1 1982 Farming System 1049
41.3.1.2 2006 Farming System 1050
41.3.2 Issues Faced and Strategies Used to Manage Them 1051
41.3.2.1 Soil Structure and Health 1051
41.3.2.2 Controlling Soil Erosion 1052
41.3.2.3 Improving System Efficiency 1052
41.3.2.4 Responding to Varying Seasonal Conditions 1052
41.3.2.5 Communications 1053
41.3.3 Owners’ Assessment of the Outcomes 1053
41.3.3.1 Advantages of the New System? 1053
41.3.3.2 Challenges of the New System? 1053
41.3.4 Economic Impact of the Changes 1053
41.3.5 Future Plans 1054
41.3.6 Summary and Conclusions for Property 2 1056
41.4 Property 3 – Low Rainfall (350 mm) 1056
41.4.1 Introducing the Business 1056
41.4.2 Issues Faced and Strategies Used to Manage Them 1058
41.4.2.1 Maintaining Fragile sand Dune Soils 1058
41.4.2.2 Controlling Weeds and Root Diseases 1059
41.4.2.3 Risk Management 1059
41.4.3 Economic Impact of the Changes 1060
41.4.4 Future Plans 1061
41.4.5 Summary and Conclusions of Property 3 1062
41.5 Comparing the Systems 1062
41.6 Conclusion 1064
References 1064
Chapter 42: Ruradene, South Australia 1065
42.1 Introduction 1065
42.2 The Farm Environment 1066
42.3 The Early Years, System Structure, Enterprises and Management 1066
42.3.1 Poultry for Cash Flow 1067
42.3.2 Increased Labour 1068
42.3.3 Sharing Equipment 1068
42.3.4 Weed Control 1068
42.4 Drivers of Change 1069
42.5 Pathways Chosen to Improve the Farm System, and Achieve Goals of Profitability and Sustainability 1070
42.6 Building up the Farm 1070
42.7 The Value of Good Information, Advice and Farmer Co-operation 1071
42.8 The Current System and Its Management 1072
42.9 Non-farm Activities 1074
42.10 Challenges for the Future 1074
42.11 Conclusion 1075
Reference 1075
Chapter 43: Lindene South Australia 1076
43.1 Introduction 1076
43.2 Climate and Soil 1077
43.2.1 Climate 1077
43.2.2 Soils 1077
43.3 The Early Years 1077
43.4 Drivers of Change in Recent Years 1078
43.5 Pathways for Change Chosen by the Owners to Improve Their System 1079
43.6 Putting It All Together — Managing the Whole 1081
43.7 The Current System and Looking to the Future 1081
Chapter 44: Developments in a Mixed Farming System in Southern New South Wales, Australia 1083
44.1 Introduction 1083
44.2 The Farm Environment—Climate, Soils and Vegetation 1084
44.3 The Early Years—System Structure, Operation and Management 1085
44.4 Drivers of Change During the 1980s and 1990s—New Strategies and Pathways 1086
44.5 Putting It All Together in the New Millennium 1088
44.6 Looking to the Future 1090
Chapter 45: The Development and Operation of No-till Farming in Northern New South Wales (NSW), Australia 1093
45.1 Introduction 1093
45.2 The Farming Environment 1094
45.2.1 Climate 1094
45.2.2 Soils 1096
45.3 System Structure and Limitations 1096
45.4 The Drivers of Change 1097
45.5 Developing the No-till System at Livingston Farm 1098
45.5.1 The Development of Specialised Seed Drills for Reduced- and No-till Farming 1098
45.5.2 No-till (Ecofallow) Sorghum 1100
45.5.3 Sprayer Technology 1100
45.5.4 Changes in the Weed Spectrum 1101
45.5.5 Sheep in No-till Farming 1102
45.5.6 Moree Conservation Farmers and Community Involvement 1102
45.5.7 Controlled Traffic Farming 1103
45.6 Crop Rotations, Pastures and Other Developments at Livingston Farm 1104
45.6.1 Crop Rotations 1104
45.6.2 A Pasture Phase? 1104
45.6.3 Cattle in the Farming System 1105
45.6.4 General Property Improvement 1106
45.6.5 Tree Planting 1107
45.7 What Has Been the Overall Improvement During the Last 30 Years? 1107
45.7.1 The Components of Improvement 1107
45.7.2 Ongoing Challenges for Farmers in Northern NSW 1108
45.7.3 Where to from Here? 1109
45.7.4 A Vision for the Future 1110
References 1110
Chapter 46: Farming System Development in North Central Victoria Australia 1112
46.1 Introduction 1112
46.2 Climate and Soils 1113
46.3 Early Years: System Structure, Enterprises and Management 1113
46.4 The Pathways Chosen by the Owners/Managers to Maintain or Improve Their System 1115
46.5 Putting It All Together, Managing the Whole 1117
46.5.1 Lucerne Establishment and Management 1117
46.5.2 Lucerne and Livestock 1120
46.6 Assessment of the Current System 1121
46.6.1 Lifting Profitability with Lucerne 1121
46.7 Problems and Challenges Remaining and Plans for the Future 1123
Chapter 47: The Jochinke Farm Victoria, Australia 1124
47.1 Introduction 1124
47.2 The Early Years: First Generation Albert 1950–1970 (259–389 ha, 640–960 Acres) 1125
47.3 Changing Practices: Second Generation Trevor 1970–1996 (389–925 ha, 960–2,285 Acres) 1126
47.4 Modern Farming: Third Generation David 1996–Present (925–1995 ha, 2,285–4,930 Acres) 1126
47.5 Putting It All Together for Managing the Farm System 1127
47.6 Looking to the Future 1128
Chapter 48: The Halford Farm Saskatchewan, Canada 1130
48.1 Starting Point 1130
48.1.1 Climate and Soil 1131
48.2 Early Years: System, Structure, Enterprise and Management 1132
48.2.1 Positive Aspects of the System 1133
48.2.2 Negative Aspects 1133
48.3 Drivers of Change 1134
48.4 Pathways Chosen 1134
48.4.1 Development and Evolution of the Conserva Pak ® Seeder 1135
48.4.2 Some Opinions Formed from Experience 1136
48.4.2.1 Disk Vs. Knife Soil Openers 1136
48.4.2.2 Cool Soil Conditions 1136
48.4.2.3 Winter Canola Establishment and Survival 1137
48.4.2.4 Optimum Fertiliser Placement at Planting 1137
48.4.3 Requirements for Low-Disturbance Dual Openers 1137
48.4.3.1 Factors Affecting the Potential for Seed Damage from Side-Band Fertiliser Placement 1137
48.4.3.2 Depth of ‘Tillage’ of the Openers 1138
48.4.3.3 Residue Clearance by Knife Openers 1138
48.4.4 Cropping System Changes on the Halford Farm 1138
48.5 Putting It All Together 1139
48.5.1 Crop Diversification 1139
48.5.2 No Till and Residue Management 1141
48.5.3 Weed and Disease Control 1141
48.5.4 Summary of Technologies That Evolved Between 1983 and 2008 1141
48.6 Current Situation and Looking to the Future on the Halford Farm 1142
48.6.1 Results of on Farm Research 1142
48.6.2 Future Prospects 1143
48.6.2.1 Potential Changes to Our Farm System 1143
48.6.2.2 Future Technologies We Hope to See Developed 1143
Reference 1144
Chapter 49: Four Farms in the USA 1145
49.1 Introduction 1145
49.2 Steve Groff—Northeastern USA 1146
49.2.1 Background 1146
49.2.2 Environmental Conditions 1147
49.2.3 Early Years 1148
49.2.4 Drivers of Change 1148
49.2.5 Pathways of Change 1149
49.2.6 Managing the System 1149
49.2.7 The Future 1153
49.2.8 Information and Support 1153
49.3 Lamar Black—Southeastern USA 1153
49.3.1 Background 1154
49.3.2 Environmental Conditions 1155
49.3.3 Early Years 1155
49.3.4 Drivers of Change 1156
49.3.5 Pathways of Change 1156
49.3.6 Managing the System 1157
49.3.7 The Future 1159
49.3.8 Information and Support 1159
49.4 Clay Mitchell—Midwestern USA 1160
49.4.1 Background 1160
49.4.2 Environmental Conditions 1161
49.4.3 Early Years 1162
49.4.4 Drivers of Change 1163
49.4.5 Pathways of Change 1164
49.4.6 Managing the System 1165
49.4.7 The Future 1166
49.4.8 Information and Support 1166
49.5 Gabe Brown—Great Plains USA 1167
49.5.1 Background 1167
49.5.2 Environmental Conditions 1168
49.5.3 Early Years 1169
49.5.4 Drivers of Change 1169
49.5.5 Pathways of Change 1169
49.5.6 Managing the System 1170
49.5.7 The Future 1172
49.5.8 Information and Support 1172
Chapter 50: Summing Up 1173
50.1 Introduction 1173
50.2 Types of Rainfed Farming Systems 1174
50.3 Profitability and Sustainability 1175
50.4 Some Key Concepts 1175
50.5 System Analysis, Sub-systems and Limiting Factors 1178
50.5.1 Limiting Factors 1179
50.5.1.1 Climate and Climate Change 1179
50.5.1.2 Water 1180
50.5.1.3 Soil Chemical and Physical Constraints 1181
50.5.1.4 Pests 1182
50.6 Rainfed Farming Systems Around the World 1182
50.6.1 West Asian and African Systems 1183
50.6.2 South Asian Systems 1184
50.6.3 Chinese Systems 1186
50.6.4 Developed Farming Systems in North and South America and Australia 1188
50.6.4.1 Systems of South America 1189
50.6.4.2 Systems of United States of America 1191
50.6.4.3 Canadian Farming Systems 1196
50.6.4.4 Southern Australian Rainfed Farming Systems 1200
50.6.4.5 North-Eastern Australian Farming Systems 1208
50.7 Conservation Agriculture and Precision Agriculture in Rainfed Farming Systems 1211
50.7.1 Conservation Agriculture (CA) 1211
50.7.1.1 CA in North and South America and Australia 1212
50.7.1.2 CA in WANA 1212
50.7.1.3 CA with CIMMYT in Mexico 1213
50.7.2 Controlled Traffic Farming (CTF) 1215
50.7.3 Precision Agriculture 1215
50.8 Farmer Risk Management, Decision Making, Participation in RDE and Uptake of New Technology 1217
50.8.1 Risk and Risk Management Strategies 1217
50.8.2 Participation in Farming Systems Research, Development and Extension (RDE) 1219
50.8.3 Farmer Decision-Making and Use of Decision Support Tools 1220
50.9 Conclusion 1222
References 1223
Chapter 51: Glossary 1224
Index 1268