Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook (eBook)
962 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-08-045689-8 (ISBN)
The new Third Edition of the Gas Turbine Engineering Hand Book updates the book to cover the new generation of Advanced gas Turbines. It examines the benefit and some of the major problems that have been encountered by these new turbines. The book keeps abreast of the environmental changes and the industries answer to these new regulations. A new chapter on case histories has been added to enable the engineer in the field to keep abreast of problems that are being encountered and the solutions that have resulted in solving them.
* Comprehensive treatment of Gas Turbines from Design to Operation and Maintenance. In depth treatment of Compressors with emphasis on surge, rotating stall, and choke; Combustors with emphasis on Dry Low NOx Combustors; and Turbines with emphasis on Metallurgy and new cooling schemes. An excellent introductory book for the student and field engineers
* A special maintenance section dealing with the advanced gas turbines, and special diagnostic charts have been provided that will enable the reader to troubleshoot problems he encounters in the field.
* The third edition consists of many Case Histories of Gas Turbine problems. This should enable the field engineer to avoid some of these same generic problems.
Dr. Boyce has 40 years of experience in the field of Turbomachinery in both industry and academia. His industrial experience includes 20 years as Chairman and CEO of Boyce Engineering International, and five years as a designer of compressors and turbines for various gas turbine manufacturers. His academic experience includes 15 years as Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M University and Founder of the Turbomachinery Laboratories and The Turbomachinery Symposium, which is now in its thirtieth year. Dr. Boyce is the author of several books and has authored more than 100 technical papers and reports on Gas Turbines, Compressors Pumps, Fluid Mechanics, and Turbomachinery and has taught over 100 short courses around the world, attended by over 3,000 students representing over 400 companies. He is a much-requested speaker at universities and conferences throughout the world.Dr. Boyce received a B.S. and M.S. in Mechanical Engineering from the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology and the State University of New York, respectively, and a Ph.D. (Aerospace & Mechanical Engineering) from the University of Oklahoma.
The Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook has been the standard for engineers involved in the design, selection, and operation of gas turbines. This revision includes new case histories, the latest techniques, and new designs to comply with recently passed legislation. By keeping the book up to date with new, emerging topics, Boyce ensures that this book will remain the standard and most widely used book in this field. The new Third Edition of the Gas Turbine Engineering Hand Book updates the book to cover the new generation of Advanced gas Turbines. It examines the benefit and some of the major problems that have been encountered by these new turbines. The book keeps abreast of the environmental changes and the industries answer to these new regulations. A new chapter on case histories has been added to enable the engineer in the field to keep abreast of problems that are being encountered and the solutions that have resulted in solving them. - Comprehensive treatment of Gas Turbines from Design to Operation and Maintenance. In depth treatment of Compressors with emphasis on surge, rotating stall, and choke; Combustors with emphasis on Dry Low NOx Combustors; and Turbines with emphasis on Metallurgy and new cooling schemes. An excellent introductory book for the student and field engineers- A special maintenance section dealing with the advanced gas turbines, and special diagnostic charts have been provided that will enable the reader to troubleshoot problems he encounters in the field- The third edition consists of many Case Histories of Gas Turbine problems. This should enable the field engineer to avoid some of these same generic problems
Front Cover 1
Title Page 5
Copyright Page 6
Contents 9
Preface 12
Preface to the Second Edition 15
Preface to the First Edition 17
Foreword to the First Edition 19
Part I - Design: Theory and Practice 21
1 An Overview of Gas Turbines 23
Gas Turbine Cycle in the Combined Cycle or Cogeneration Mode 23
Gas Turbine Performance 29
Gas Turbine Design Considerations 31
Categories of Gas Turbines 35
Major Gas Turbine Components 45
Fuel Type 60
Environmental Effects 62
Turbine Expander Section 63
Materials 67
Coatings 69
Gas Turbine Heat Recovery 69
Supplementary Firing of Heat Recovery Systems 73
Bibliography 75
2 Theoretical and Actual Cycle Analysis 77
The Brayton Cycle 77
Actual Cycle Analysis 87
The Brayton-Rankine Cycle 102
Summation of Cycle Analysis 104
A General Overview of Combined Cycle Plants 106
Compressed Air Energy Storage Cycle 111
Power Augmentaion 113
Mid-compressor flashing of water. 119
Summation of the Power Augmentation Systems 123
Bibliography 128
3 Compressor and Turbine Performance Characteristics 130
Turbomachine Aerothermodynamics 130
The Aerothermal Equations 134
Efficiencies 139
Dimensional Analysis 142
Compressor Performance Characteristics 145
Turbine Performance Characteristics 149
Gas Turbine Performance Computation 150
Bibliography 158
4 Performance and Mechanical Standards 159
Major Variables for a Gas Turbine Application 159
Performance Standards 166
Mechanical Parameters 168
Application of the Mechanical Standards to the Gas Turbine 174
Specifications 187
Bibliography 193
5 Rotor Dynamics 196
Mathematical Analysis 196
Application to Rotating Machines 210
Critical Speed Calculations for Rotor Bearing Systems 214
Electromechanical Systems and Analogies 216
Campbell Diagram 230
Bibliography 235
Part II - Major Components 237
6 Centrifugal Compressors 239
Centrifugal Compressor Components 241
Centrifugal Compressor Performance 266
Compressor Surge 273
Process Centrifugal Compressors 283
Bibliography 290
7 Axial-Flow Compressors 294
Introduction 294
Blade and Cascade Nomenclature 299
Elementary Airfoil Theory 301
Laminar-Flow Airfoils 303
Energy Increase 304
Velocity Triangles 306
Degree of Reaction 310
Radial Equilibrium 313
Diffusion Factor 315
The Incidence Rule 315
The Deviation Rule 318
Compressor Operation Characteristics 323
Compressor Choke 326
Compressor Performance Parameters 334
Performance Losses in an Axial-Flow Compressor 337
New Developments in Axial-Flow Compressors 339
Axial-Flow Compressor Research 341
Compressor Blade Material 351
Acknowledgments 354
Bibliography 354
8 Radial-InflowTurbines 356
Description 357
Theory 360
Turbine Design Considerations 364
Losses in a Radial-InflowTurbine 368
Performance of a Radial-InflowTurbine 369
Bibliography 373
9 Axial-FlowTurbines 374
Turbine Geometry 374
Impulse Turbine 381
The Reaction Turbine 385
Turbine Blade Cooling Concepts 388
Turbine Blade Cooling Design 391
Cooled-Turbine Aerodynamics 399
Turbine Losses 400
Bibliography 404
10 Combustors 407
Combustion Terms 409
Combustion 410
Combustion Chamber Design 412
Fuel Atomization and Ignition 418
Typical Combustor Arrangements 423
Air Pollution Problems 427
Catalytic Combustion 440
Bibliography 444
Part III - Materials, Fuel Technology, and Fuel Systems 447
11 Materials 449
General Metallurgical Behaviors in Gas Turbines 451
Gas Turbine Materials 460
Compressor Blades 465
Forgings and Nondestructive Testing 465
Coatings 467
Bibliography 473
12 Fuels 474
Fuel Specifications 478
Fuel Properties 481
Liquid Fuel Handling and Treatment 483
Heavy Fuels 492
Fuel Gas Handling and Treatment 497
Equipment for Removal of Particulates and Liquids from Fuel Gas Systems 502
Fuel Heating 505
Cleaning of Turbine Components 506
Fuel Economics 509
Operating Experience 511
Heat Tracing of Piping Systems 512
Types of Heat-Tracing Systems 513
Storage of Liquids 515
Bibliography 517
Part IV - Auxiliary Components and Accessories 519
13 Bearings and Seals 521
Bearings 521
Bearing Design Principles 531
Tilting-Pad Journal Bearings 535
Bearing Materials 538
Bearing and Shaft Instabilities 539
Thrust Bearings 540
Factors Affecting Thrust-Bearing Design 544
Thrust-Bearing Power Loss 544
Seals 545
Noncontacting Seals 545
Mechanical (Face) Seals 553
Mechanical Seal Selection and Application 558
Seal Systems 563
Associated Oil System 564
Dry Gas Seals 565
Bibliography 571
14 Gears 573
Gear Types 574
Factors Affecting Gear Design 576
Manufacturing Processes 584
Installation and Initial Operation 587
Bibliography 589
Part V - Installation, Operation, and Maintenance 591
15 Lubrication 593
Basic Oil System 593
Lubricant Selection 601
Oil Sampling and Testing 601
Oil Contamination 602
Filter Selection 603
Cleaning and Flushing 605
Coupling Lubrication 606
Lubrication Management Program 607
Bibliography 608
16 Spectrum Analysis 609
Vibration Measurement 615
Taping Data 619
Interpretation of Vibration Spectra 620
Subsynchronous Vibration Analysis Using RTA 624
Synchronous and Harmonic Spectra 628
Bibliography 634
17 Balancing 635
Rotor Imbalance 635
Balancing Procedures 641
Application of Balancing Techniques 647
UserÌs Guide for Multiplane Balancing 651
Bibliography 653
18 Couplings and Alignment 655
Gear Couplings 657
Metal Diaphragm Couplings 665
Metal Disc Couplings 668
Turbomachinery Uprates 670
Shaft Alignment 674
Bibliography 682
19 Control Systems and Instrumentation 684
Control Systems 685
Condition Monitoring Systems 695
Monitoring Software 699
Implementation of a Condition Monitoring System 701
Life Cycle Costs 706
Temperature Measurement 714
Pressure Measurement 716
Vibration Measurement 717
Auxiliary System Monitoring 720
The Gas Turbine 726
Failure Diagnostics 730
Mechanical Problem Diagnostics 735
Summary 738
Bibliography 739
20 Gas Turbine Performance Test 741
Introduction 741
Performance Codes 742
Flow Straighteners 743
Gas Turbine Test 750
Gas Turbine 751
Performance Curves 756
Performance Computations 756
Gas Turbine Performance Calculations 767
Correction Factors for Gas Turbines 769
Vibration Measurement 771
Emission Measurements 773
Plant Losses 777
Bibliography 779
21 Maintenance Techniques 781
Philosophy of Maintenance 781
Training of Personnel 789
Tools and Shop Equipment 793
Gas Turbine Start-up 800
Redesign for Higher Machinery Reliability 802
Long-Term Service Agreements 817
Borescope Inspection 819
Rejuvenation of Used Turbine Blades 853
Rotor Dynamic System Characteristics 855
Bearing Maintenance 857
Coupling Maintenance 868
Repair and Rehabilitation of Turbomachinery Foundations 869
Bibliography 872
22 Case Histories 873
Axial-Flow Compressors 874
Combustion Systems 886
Axial-Flow Turbines 894
Appendix - Equivalent Units 918
LENGTH 918
AREA 918
VOLUME 918
DENSITY 918
ANGULAR 919
TIME 919
SPEED 919
FORCE, MASS 919
PRESSURE 919
ENERGY AND POWER 920
ENTROPY, SPECIFIC HEAT, GAS CONSTANT 920
UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT 920
MISCELLANEOUS CONSTANTS 921
Index 922
Short Bio-Data 955
1 An Overview of Gas Turbines
The gas turbine is a power plant, which produces a great amount of energy for its size and weight. The gas turbine has found increasing service in the past 40 years in the power industry both among utilities and merchant plants as well as the petrochemical industry, and utilities throughout the world. Its compactness, low weight, and multiple fuel application make it a natural power plant for offshore platforms. Today there are gas turbines, which run on natural gas, diesel fuel, naphtha, methane, crude, low-Btu gases, vaporized fuel oils, and biomass gases.
The last 20 years has seen a large growth in Gas Turbine Technology. The growth is spearheaded by the growth of materials technology, new coatings, and new cooling schemes. This, with the conjunction of increase in compressor pressure ratio, has increased the gas turbine thermal efficiency from about 15% to over 45%.
Table 1-1 gives an economic comparison of various generation technologies from the initial cost of such systems to the operating costs of these systems. Because distributed generation is very site specific the cost will vary and the justification of installation of these types of systems will also vary. Sites for distributed generation vary from large metropolitan areas to the slopes of the Himalayan mountain range. The economics of power generation depend on the fuel cost, running efficiencies, maintenance cost, and first cost, in that order. Site selection depends on environmental concerns such as emissions, and noise, fuel availability, and size and weight.
Gas Turbine Cycle in the Combined Cycle or Cogeneration Mode
The utilization of gas turbine exhaust gases, for steam generation or the heating of other heat transfer mediums, or in the use of cooling or heating buildings or parts of cities, is not a new concept and is currently being exploited to its full potential.
Table 1-1 Economic Comparison of Various Generation Technologies
The Fossil Power Plants of the 1990s and into the early part of the new millennium will be the Combined Cycle Power Plants, with the gas turbine being the centerpiece of the plant. It is estimated that between 1997–2006 there will be an addition of 147.7 GW of power. These plants have replaced the large Steam Turbine Plants, which were the main fossil power plants through the 1980s. The Combined Cycle Power Plant is not new in concept, since some have been in operation since the mid-1950s. These plants came into their own with the new high capacity and efficiency gas turbines.
The new marketplace of energy conversion will have many new and novel concepts in combined cycle power plants. Figure 1-1 shows the heat rates of these plants, present and future, and Figure 1-2 shows the efficiencies of the same plants. The plants referenced are the Simple Cycle Gas Turbine (SCGT) with firing temperatures of 2400 °F (1315 °C), Recuperative Gas Turbine (RGT), the Steam Turbine Plant (ST), the Combined Cycle Power Plant (CCPP), the Advanced Combined Cycle Power Plants (ACCP) such as combined cycle power plants using Advanced Gas Turbine Cycles, and finally the Hybrid Power Plants (HPP).
Table 1-2 is an analysis of the competitive standing of the various types of power plants, their capital cost, heat rate, operation and maintenance costs, availability and reliability, and time for planning. Examining the capital cost and installation time of these new power plants it is obvious that the gas turbine is the best choice for peaking power. Steam turbine plants are about 50% higher in initial cost—$800–$1000/kW—than combined cycle plants, which are about $400–$900/kW. Nuclear power plants are the most expensive. The high initial costs and the long time in construction make such a plant unrealistic for a deregulated utility.
In the area of performance, the steam turbine power plants have an efficiency of about 35%, as compared to combined cycle power plants, which have an efficiency of about 55%. Newer Gas Turbine technology will make combined cycle efficiencies range between 60–65%. As a rule of thumb a 1% increase in efficiency could mean that 3.3% more capital can be invested. However one must be careful that the increase in efficiency does not lead to a decrease in availability. From 1996–2000 we have seen a growth in efficiency of about 10% and a loss in availability of about 10%. This trend must be turned around since many analyses show that a 1% drop in the availability needs about a 2–3% increase in efficiency to offset that loss.
The time taken to install a steam plant from conception to production is about 42–60 months as compared to 22–36 months for combined cycle power plants. The actual construction time is about 18 months, while environmental permits in many cases takes 12 months and engineering 6–12 months. The time taken for bringing the plant online affects the economics of the plant, the longer capital is employed without return, the plant accumulates interest, insurance, and taxes.
Figure 1-1. Typical heat rates of various types of plants.
Figure 1-2. Typical efficiencies of various types of plants.
Table 1-2 Economic and Operation Characteristics of Plant
It is obvious from this that as long as natural gas or diesel fuel is available the choice of combined cycle power plants is obvious.
Gas Turbine Performance
The aerospace engines have been the leaders in most of the technology in the gas turbine. The design criteria for these engines was high reliability, high performance, with many starts and flexible operation throughout the flight envelope. The engine life of about 3500 hours between major overhauls was considered good. The aerospace engine performance has always been rated primarily on its thrust/weight ratio. Increase in engine thrust/weight ratio is achieved by the development of high-aspect ratio blades in the compressor as well as optimizing the pressure ratio and firing temperature of the turbine for maximum work output per unit flow.
The Industrial Gas Turbine has always emphasized long life and this conservative approach has resulted in the Industrial Gas Turbine in many aspects giving up high performance for rugged operation. The Industrial Gas Turbine has been conservative in the pressure ratio and the firing temperatures. This has all changed in the last 10 years; spurred on by the introduction of the “AeroDerivative Gas Turbine” the industrial gas turbine has dramatically improved its performance in all operational aspects. This has resulted in dramatically reducing the performance gap between these two types of gas turbines. The gas turbine to date in the combined cycle mode is fast replacing the steam turbine as the base load provider of electrical power throughout the world. This is even true in Europe and the United States where the large steam turbines were the only type of base load power in the fossil energy sector. The gas turbine from the 1960s to the late 1980s was used only as peaking power in those countries. It was used as base load mainly in the “developing countries” where the need for power was increasing rapidly so that the wait of three to six years for a steam plant was unacceptable.
Figures 1-3 and 1-4 show the growth of the Pressure Ratio and Firing Temperature. The growth of both the Pressure Ratio and Firing Temperature parallel each other, as both growths are necessary to achieving the optimum thermal efficiency.
The increase in pressure ratio increases the gas turbine thermal efficiency when accompanied with the increase in turbine firing temperature. Figure 1-5 shows the effect on the overall cycle efficiency of the increasing pressure ratio and the firing temperature. The increase in the pressure ratio increases the overall efficiency at a given temperature, however increasing the pressure ratio beyond a certain value at any given firing temperature can actually result in lowering the overall cycle efficiency.
Figure 1-3. Development of engine pressure ratio over the years.
Figure 1-4. Trend in improvement in firing temperature.
In the past, the gas turbine was perceived as a relatively inefficient power source when compared to other power sources. Its efficiencies were as low as 15% in the early 1950s. Today its efficiencies are in the 45–50% range, which translates to a heat rate of 7582 BTU/kW-hr (8000 kJ/kW-hr) to 6824 BTU/kW-hr (7199 kJ/kW-hr). The limiting factor for most gas turbines has been the turbine inlet temperature. With new schemes of cooling using steam or conditioned air, and breakthroughs in blade metallurgy, higher turbine temperatures have been achieved. The new gas turbines have fired inlet temperatures as high as 2600 °F (1427 °C), and pressure ratios of 40:1 with efficiencies of 45% and above.
Figure 1-5. Overall cycle efficiency.
Gas Turbine Design Considerations
The gas turbine is the best suited prime mover when the needs at hand such as capital cost, time from planning to completion, maintenance costs, and fuel costs are considered. The gas turbine has the lowest maintenance and capital cost of any major prime mover. It also has the fastest completion time to full operation of any...
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 1.9.2017 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Mathematik / Informatik ► Mathematik |
| Technik ► Bauwesen | |
| Technik ► Bergbau | |
| Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik | |
| Technik ► Maschinenbau | |
| Wirtschaft | |
| Weitere Fachgebiete ► Land- / Forstwirtschaft / Fischerei | |
| ISBN-10 | 0-08-045689-8 / 0080456898 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-0-08-045689-8 / 9780080456898 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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