Handbook of Milk Composition (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Handbook of Milk Composition 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Contributors 18
Foreword 22
Preface 24
Chapter I. Introduction 26
I. Purpose 26
II. General Description of Milks 27
References 28
Chapter 2. The Structure of Milk: Implications for Sampling and Storage 30
A. The Milk Lipid Globule Membrane 30
I. lntracellular Origin and Growth of Milk Lipid Globules 30
II. Role of lntracellular Lipid Droplet Coat Material 32
III. Milk Lipid Globule Secretion 33
IV. Nature and Frequency of Cytoplasmic Crescents 35
V. Size and Membrane Area Distribution of Milk Lipid Globules 39
VI. Nature of Milk Llipid Globule Membranes 41
VII. Reorganization of the Membrane during Storage and Processing 61
References 69
B. Particulate Constituents in Human and Bovine Milks 75
I. Introduction 75
II. Cells and Membrane Fragments 78
Ill. Emulsion Parameters 81
IV. Casein Micelles 83
V. Summary 85
References 86
C. Sampling and Storage of Human Milk 88
I. Introduction 88
II. Mechanisms of Milk Secretion and Ejection 88
III. Methods for Obtaining a Representative Milk Sample 93
IV. Sources of Change in Milk Composition during Storage 96
V. Recommendations for Storage of Milk Samples 98
VI. Summary 101
References 102
D. Sampling and Storage of Bovine Milk 104
1. Introduction 104
II. Sampling 104
III. Storage 105
References 105
E. The Physical Properties of Human and Bovine Milks 106
I. Introduction 106
II. Electrical Conductivity 106
III. Freezing Point 107
IV. Boiling Point 107
V. Osmolality or Osmotic Pressure 107
VI. pH 107
VII. Specific Gravity 109
VIII. Surface Tension 109
IX. Titratable Acidity 109
X. Specific Heat 109
XI. Coefficient of Expansion 110
XII. Viscosity 110
References 110
Chapter 3. Determinants of Milk Volume and Composition 112
A. Lactogenesis in Women: A Cascade of Events Revealed by Milk Composition 112
I. Introduction 112
II. The Physiological Basis of Lactogenesis 113
Ill. The Composition of the Preparation Mammary Secretion 114
IV. Implications of Changes in Milk Composition during Lactogenesis 117
V. Summary and Conclusions 121
References 122
B. Volume and Caloric Density of Human Milk 124
1. Introduction 124
II. Methods for Measurement of Milk Volume 125
III. Milk Volumes in Exclusively Breast-Feeding Women 131
IV. Breast Milk Volumes Transferred to Partially Breast-Fed Infants 133
V. Caloric Density of Human Milk 133
VI. Conclusions 135
References 136
C. Volume and Caloric Density of Bovine Milk 139
I. Volume 139
II. Calorie Density 139
References 139
D. Regional Variations in the Composition of Human Milk 140
I. Summary 140
References 242
E. Effects of Gestational Stage at Delivery on Human Milk Components 247
I. Introduction 247
II. Nitrogen Composition of Preterm Milk 249
Ill. Acid-Soluble Nitrogen Fraction of Preterm Milk 251
IV. Macrominerals and Electrolytes 252
V. Trace Elements 252
VI. Vitamins 254
VII. Physiological Basis of Preterm Milk Composition 254
VIII. Summary 259
References 259
F. Miscellaneous Factors Affecting Composition and Volume of Human and Bovine Milks 262
I. Introduction 262
II. Human Milk 262
III. Bovine Milk 285
References 292
Chapter 4. Carbohydrates in Milks: Analysis, Quantities, and Significance 298
1. Introduction 298
II. Analytical Measurement of Carbohydrates in Milk 299
III. Human Milk Lactose 305
IV. Human Milk Glucose 313
V. Human Milk Galactose 314
VI. Human Milk Oligosaccharides 314
VII. Lactose in Nonhuman Milk 327
VIII. Other Carbohydrates in Nonhuman Milk 328
IX. Summary 361
X. Speculation on Functions of Lactose 361
References 363
Chapter 5. Nitrogenous Components of Milk 376
A. Human Milk Proteins 376
I. Introduction 376
II. Caseins 378
III. Whey Proteins 383
References 389
B. Nonprotein Nitrogen Fractions of Human Milk 394
I. Acid-Soluble Nitrogen Fraction 394
II. Components of Acid-Soluble Nitrogen Fraction 399
III. Factors Affecting Milk Acid-Soluble Nitrogen Composition 406
IV. Quantitative Recovery of Components in the Acid-Soluble Fraction of Milk 407
V. Summary 408
References 410
C. Enzymes in Human Milk 413
1. Introduction 413
II. Milk Enzymes Active Mainly in the Mammary Gland 413
III. Milk Enzymes without Well-Defined Function 423
IV. Milk Enzymes Important in Neonatal Development 427
References 441
D. Hormones and Growth Factors in Human Milk 453
I. Introduction 453
II. Explanation of Data 453
References 457
E. Nucleotides and Related Compounds in Human and Bovine Milks 461
I. Introduction 461
II. Analytical Methodology 464
III. Composition of Nucleotides and Related Compounds in Milk 471
IV. Significance of Dietary Nucleotides in Infant Nutrition 481
V. Summary 485
References 486
F. Protein and Amino Acid Composition of Bovine Milk 489
I. Introduction 489
II. Protein Composition 489
III. Amino Acid Composition 490
References 492
G. Nonprotein Nitrogen Compounds in Bovine Milk 493
1. Nitrogen Content of Milk 493
II. Milk NPN 494
References 495
H. Enzymes Indigenous to Bovine Milk 497
I. Introduction 497
II. Enzymes of Technological Significance 500
References 501
I. Hormones and Growth Factors in Bovine Milk 501
I. Introduction 501
II. Hormones 504
III. Summary 513
References 514
Chapter 6. Milk Lipids A. Human Milk Lipids 520
A. Human Milk Lipids 520
I. Introduction 520
II. Collection, Preparation, and Storage of Samples 521
III. Determinations of Lipid Content 522
IV. Factors Affecting Total Lipid Content 522
V. Lipid Classes 522
References 562
B. Bovine Milk Lipids 568
I. Introduction 568
II. Collection, Preparation, and Storage of Samples 568
III. Determination of Lipid Content 568
IV. Factors Affecting Total Lipid Content 569
V. Lipid Classes 569
VI. Summary 597
References 598
Chapter 7. Minerals, Ions, and Trace Elements in Milk 602
A. Ionic Interactions in Milk 602
I. Introduction 602
II. Methodologies 603
Ill. Hydrogen Ion Equilibria in Milk 607
IV. Distribution of Monovalent Ions in Milk 607
V. Distribution of Divalent Cations among the Structural Cornpartmenu of Milk 608
VI. Calcium and Zinc Binding to Casein 610
VII. Divalent Cation Equilibria in the Aqueous Compartment of Milk 611
VIII. Summary and Conclusions 615
References 615
B. Major Minerals and Ionic Constitutents of Human and Bovine Milks 618
I. Introduction 618
II. Major Monovalent Ions: Sodium, Potassium, and Chloride 618
111. Divalent Ions: Calcium, Magnesium, Citrate, Phosphate, and Sulfate 625
References 644
C. Microminerals in Human and Animal Milks 647
I. Nutritional Aspects of Microminerals 647
II. Microminerals in Milks 651
III. Radioisotopes 681
References 686
Chapter 8. Vitamins in Milk 700
A. Water-Soluble Vitamins in Human Milk 700
I. Introduction 700
II. Methodological Considerations 700
III. Factors That Influence Water-Soluble Vitamin Concentrations in Human Milk 701
IV. Water-Soluble Vitamin Contents of Human Milk 704
V. Summary 710
References 711
B. Water-Soluble Vitamins in Bovine Milk 713
I. Introduction 713
II. Forms and Stability 713
III. Summary 716
References 717
C. Carotenoids, Retinoids, and Vitamin K in Human Milk 718
I. Introduction 718
II. Retinoids 718
III. Carotenoids 723
IV. Vitamin K 725
V. Fat-Soluble Vitamins-Methodological Considerations 727
References 728
D. Vitamins D and E in Human Milk 731
I. Introduction 731
II. Vitamin D 731
III. Vitamin E 735
References 740
E. Fat-Soluble Vitamins in Bovine Milk 743
I. Introduction 743
II. Carotenoids and Retinoids 743
III. Vitamin D 745
IV. Tocopherols (Vitamin E) 746
V. Vitamin K 748
References 749
Chapter 9. Defense Agents in Milk 752
A. Defense Agents in Human Milk 752
1. Introduction 752
II. Types of Defense Agents in Human Milk 753
III. Coda 763
References 763
B. Defense Agents in Bovine Milk 771
I. Introduction 771
II. Lysozyme 771
Ill. Lactoferrin 771
IV. Lactoperoxidases 772
V. Immunoglobulins 772
VI. Vitamin-Binding Proteins 772
VII. Lipids 772
VIII. Summary 773
References 773
Chapter 10. Comparative Analysis of Nonhuman Milks 774
I. Introduction 774
II. Factors Affecting Milk Composition Data 775
III. Phylogenetic Patterns in Milk Composition 795
IV. Conclusion 804
References 805
B. Phylogenetic and Ecological Variation in the Fatty Acid Composition of Milks 814
I. Introduction 814
II. The Sources of Fatty Acids among Species 815
III. Considerations in Sampling and Analysis of Milk Fatty Acids 817
IV. Selection Criteria for the Milk Fatty Acid Table 821
V. Patterns of Milk Fatty Acids among Taxonomic Groups 823
VI. Conclusions 847
References 848
C. Comparative Analysis of Milks Used for Human Consumption 853
I. Introduction 853
II. Chemical Properties of Milks 854
III. Uses for Milks of Domesticated Animals 857
IV. Summary 858
References 858
D. Infant Formulas 860
I. Introduction 860
II. Composition 860
References 862
Chapter 11. Contaminants in Milk 882
A. Drugs and Contaminants in Human Milk 882
I. Contaminants 882
II. Chemical Constituents of Human Milk 883
III. Pharmacokinetic Approach to Drug Transport into Milk 884
IV. Properties of Substances That Influence Distribution in Milk 893
V. The Characteristics of the Infant 895
VI. Substances That Influence Milk Production 896
VII. Exposure to a "Recreational Drug"- Nicotine 897
VIII. Environmental Substances in Milk 898
IX. Heavy Metal as Contaminants in Human Milk 899
X. Insecticides 902
XI. Other Environmental Contaminants 904
XII. Concluding Thoughts 905
References 905
B. Contaminants in Bovine Milk 912
I. Introduction 912
II. Chlorinated Pesticides and Related Compounds: PCBs, PBBs, and Dioxins 913
III. Veterinary and Other Drugs 916
IV. Detergents and Disinfectants 920
V. Mycotoxins 921
VI. Metals 922
VII. Radionuclides 924
VIII. Summary 925
References 925
Chapter 12. Summary 928
Index 930