Biology of the Hard Clam (eBook)

Cover 1
Contents 10
Preface 6
List of Contributors 8
Section 1: Descriptive Biology 22
Chapter 1. Systematics and Taxonomy 24
1.1 Taxonomy 24
1.2 Adaptations and evolution 40
1.3 The systematics of Mercenaria 58
1.4 Conclusions 63
1.5 Acknowledgments 63
References 64
Chapter 2. Shell Structure and Age Determination 74
2.1 Introduction 74
2.2 Larval shell morphology 75
2.3 Adult shell microstructure and age determination 76
2.4 Conclusions 95
2.5 Acknowledgments 95
References 95
Chapter 3. Embryogenesis and Organogenesis of Veligers and Early Juveniles 98
3.1 Introduction 98
3.2 Definitions 99
3.3 Embryogenesis 101
3.4 Organogenesis 108
3.5 Acknowledgments 132
References 133
Chapter 4. Anatomy and Histology of Mercenaria mercenaria 138
4.1 Introduction 138
4.2 Mantle 138
4.3 Labial palps 152
4.4 Gills 158
4.5 Siphon 163
4.6 Foot 166
4.7 Muscular system 169
4.8 Digestive system 173
4.9 Digestive gland 190
4.10 Excretory system 196
4.11 Reproductive system 201
4.12 Circulatory system 210
4.13 Nervous system 231
4.14 Summary 234
4.15 Acknowledgments 236
References 237
Chapter 5. Reproduction in Mercenaria mercenaria 242
5.1 Introduction 242
5.2 Sexual expression 242
5.3 Gonad development 245
5.4 Gametogenic cycle 249
5.5 Spawning 264
5.6 Ecological considerations 274
5.7 Summary 276
5.8 Acknowledgments 277
References 277
Chapter 6. Genetics of Hard Clams, Mercenaria Mercenaria 282
6.1 Introduction 282
6.2 Quantitative genetics 282
6.3 Population genetics 290
6.4 Hybridization 294
6.5 Evolutionary genetics 296
6.6 Acknowledgments 298
References 298
Section 2: Environmental Biology 302
Chapter 7. Functional Morphology and Behavior of Shelled Veligers and Early Juveniles 304
7.1 Shelled veliger 304
7.2 Plantigrade stages 308
7.3 Some afterthoughts 319
7.4 Acknowledgments 321
References 321
Chapter 8. Physiological Ecology of Mercenaria mercenaria 326
8.1 Introduction 326
8.2 Energetics and physiology 327
8.3 Energy acquisition: feeding physiology 329
8.4 Energy expenditures: biodeposition, excretion, and other metabolic processes 347
8.5 Nutrition, growth, and production 355
8.6 Whole-organism behavior, fluid mechanics, and modeling (with Larry Sanford) 384
8.7 Acknowledgments 391
References 392
Chapter 9. Demography and Dynamics of Hard Clam Populations 404
9.1 Introduction 404
9.2 Abundance 404
9.3 Age and size structure 418
9.4 Sex ratio 427
9.5 Dispersal and movement 427
9.6 Population characteristics of early life-history stages 428
9.7 Population dynamics 437
9.8 Summary 438
9.9 Acknowledgments 439
References 439
Chapter 10. Integrating Nutritional Physiology and Ecology to Explain Interactions between Physics and Biology in Mercenaria mercenaria 444
10.1 Introduction 444
10.2 Trophic group amensalism 444
10.3 Individual growth as a function of vegetation 447
10.4 Interactions between multiple physiological stressors 453
10.5 Future directions 455
References 456
Chapter 11. Predators and predation 462
11.1 Introduction 462
11.2 Protozoa 463
11.3 Cnidaria 464
11.4 Platyhelminthes 465
11.5 Nemertea 466
11.6 Annelida 467
11.7 Mollusca 469
11.8 Arthropoda 496
11.9 Echinodermata 549
11.10 Chordata 555
11.11 Summary 582
11.12 Acknowledgments 589
11.12 References 589
Chapter 12. Pests, Parasites, Diseases, and Defense Mechanisms of the Hard Clam, Mercenaria mercenaria 612
12.1 Introduction 612
12.2 Occasional parasites, symbionts, and pests 613
12.3 Pathogens and diseases 617
12.4 Nonspecific disease symptoms 629
12.5 Defense mechanisms 630
12.6 Why do hard clams have so few recognized diseases? 636
12.7 Acknowledgments 642
References 642
Section 3: Fisheries, Aquaculture and Human Interactions 650
Chapter 13. Management of Hard Clam Stocks, Mercenaria mercenaria 652
13.1 Introduction 652
13.2 Increasing the harvest 653
13.3 Treatment by states 654
13.4 Conclusions 665
13.5 Basic requirements for management 666
13.6 Recommendations 668
13.7 Costs 669
13.8 The human population problem 669
13.9 Acknowledgments 669
References 670
Chapter 14. A History of Hard Clamming 672
14.1 Introduction 672
14.2 Background 672
14.3 History of harvesting methods and gear 674
14.4 Relation of hard clamming to other fisheries 684
14.5 Characteristics of clam fishermen 686
14.6 Community view of clammers 688
14.7 Effects of heavy sets of clams in four regions 688
14.8 Effect of surfclam 691
14.9 Effects of aquaculture development 691
14.10 Clam management actions 692
14.11 Acknowledgments 692
References 692
Chapter 15. Aquaculture of the Hard Clam, Mercenaria mercenaria 696
15.1 History 696
15.2 Current practices 700
15.3 Culture 701
15.4 Physical plant 701
15.5 Seawater system 701
15.6 Intakes, pumps and pipes 702
15.7 Filters and water purification 702
15.8 Broodstock selection 703
15.9 Broodstock conditioning and delayed spawning 703
15.10 Obtaining gametes 704
15.11 Rearing larvae 706
15.12 Nursery system 707
15.13 Post-set maintenance 707
15.14 Seawater requirements 707
15.15 Post-set requirements 707
15.16 Onshore nursery systems 709
15.17 Field nursery systems 711
15.18 Field grow out 712
15.19 Planting procedure 712
15.20 Predators 713
15.21 Monitoring and maintenance 713
15.22 Harvest 714
15.23 Packing and shipping 714
15.24 Summary 714
Appendix A 715
Appendix B 717
References 718
Chapter 16. Introduction of the Hard Clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) to the Pacific Coast of North America with Notes on its Introduction to Puerto Rico, England, and France 722
16.1 Introduction 722
16.2 Pacific Coast of North America 722
16.3 Puerto Rico 727
16.4 England 727
16.5 France 728
16.6 Summary 729
16.7 Acknowledgments 729
References 729
References Index 732
Species Index 752
General Index 762