* Two-color, user-friendly format, with copious illustrations and color plates
* Includes detailed, well-illustrated sections on gross & microscopic anatomy, common diseases, and special procedures, including surgical techniques
A volume in the Handbook of Experimental Animals series, The Laboratory Primate details the past and present use of primates in biomedical research, and the husbandry, nutritional requirements, behaviour, and breeding of each of the commonly used species. Practical information on regulatory requirements, not available in other texts, is covered. Sections on experimental models cover the major areas of biomedical research, including AIDS, cancer, neurobiology and gene therapy. Assisted reproductive technology, tissue typing, and minimum group sizes for infectious disease/vaccine studies are also included. Two-color, user-friendly format, with copious illustrations and color plates Includes detailed, well-illustrated sections on gross & microscopic anatomy, common diseases, and special procedures, including surgical techniques
The Laboratory Primate 5
Contents 7
Preface 15
Definition of the Primate Model 17
The Taxonomy of Primates in the Laboratory Context 19
Taxonomy: Organizing nature 19
What are species? The biological species concept 19
What are species? The phylogenetic species concept 21
What are subspecies? 21
Nomenclature 22
How to classify species 22
References 29
Appendix 31
Similarities of Non-human Primates to Humans: Genetic Variations and Phenotypic Associations Common to Rhesus Monkeys and Humans 33
Introduction 33
Mu-opioid receptor 35
Dopamine transporter 37
Serotonin transporter 41
Conclusion 42
References 42
General Anatomy 45
Introduction: Primates as a clade 45
The musculoskeletal system 46
The dentition 50
The digestive system 52
The brain 53
Reproduction and life history variation 54
The senses 58
References 59
Pathology of Noninfectious Diseases of the Laboratory Primate 63
Introduction 63
Respiratory system 63
Cardiovascular system 64
Endocrine system 65
Alimentary tract 66
Urinary system 71
Reproductive system 71
Nervous system 75
Integumentary system 78
Musculoskeletal system 80
Multisystemic diseases 81
References 84
Common Viral Infections of Laboratory Primates 91
Introduction 91
Retroviruses 91
Herpesviruses 96
Parvoviruses 99
Polyomaviruses 100
References 101
Modeling Parasitic Diseases in Nonhuman Primates: Malaria, ChagasÌDisease, and Filariasis 107
Introduction 107
Nonhuman primate models of malaria 107
Nonhuman primate models of ChagasÌ disease 111
Nonhuman primate models of lymphatic filariasis 113
Concluding remarks 115
References 115
Reproduction: Definition of a Primate Model of Female Fertility 121
Introduction 121
Fertility 123
Behavioural signs of reproductive activity 123
Endocrinology and reproduction 125
External factors influencing reproduction 126
Infertility 127
Summary 130
References 131
Male Reproduction and Fertilization 135
Introduction 135
Control of male reproduction 135
Factors affecting male reproduction 138
Fertilization 141
In vitro fertilization 143
Senescence 144
References 144
Primate Natural History and Social Behavior: Implications for Laboratory Housing 149
Introduction 149
Rhesus macaque natural history 150
Laboratory environment and abnormal behavior 152
Conclusions 156
References 156
Primate Management 159
Husbandry and Management of New World Species: Marmosets and Tamarins 161
Animals and natural habitat 161
Husbandry and housing 162
Feeding and nutrition 163
Environmental enrichment 167
Breeding 168
Physiological data 170
Veterinary care 171
Diseases 173
Abbreviations 176
References 176
Management of Old World Primates 179
Introduction 179
Housing 179
The Tsukuba experience 181
References 189
Vervet Monkey Breeding 191
Introduction: breeding biology 191
Breeding and rearing systems in captivity 191
The menstrual cycle 192
Mating, conception, pregnancy and birth 192
References 195
Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases 197
Introduction 197
Nutrient requirements 198
Nonhuman primate diet formulations 217
Food contaminants 218
References 219
Environmental Enrichment and Refinement of Handling Procedures 225
Introduction 225
Environmental enrichment 226
Training for cooperation during procedures 235
Conclusion 237
References 238
Development of Specific Pathogen Free Nonhuman Primate Colonies 245
Introduction 245
Historical perspectives on specific pathogen free primate colonies 245
Definition of specific pathogen free status 246
SPF target viruses for macaque colonies 246
SPF target agents in non- macaque primate colonies 248
Viral testing 248
Specific pathogen free animal derivation strategies 250
Animal housing configurations 251
Veterinary care program 251
Expanded SPF programs 252
Summary recommendations 253
References 254
Medical Care 257
Animal health monitoring and surveillance 257
Management of the stable colony 258
Management of quarantine and isolation 265
Personnel health monitoring and surveillance policies 266
First aid and critical care 267
Emergency animal care 269
Concluding remarks 272
References 272
Factors Affecting the Choice of Species 275
Introduction 275
Factors affecting choice 276
Inter and intraspecies variations in pharmaceutical use 283
Conclusions 285
References 286
Research Techniques and Procedures 289
Anaesthesia 291
Introduction 291
Section 1: Anaesthesia 291
Section 2: Drug administration and sample collection 306
References 307
Rigid Endoscopy 309
Introduction 309
Laparoscopy 310
Laparoscopic procedures 319
Thoracoscopy 329
Thoracoscopic procedures 331
Summary comments 332
References 332
Ultrasound Imaging in Rhesus 333
Section 1: Introduction 333
Section 2: Equipment and scanning techniques 334
Section 3: Nongravid animals 335
Section 4: Gravid animals 339
Section 5: Fetal development 345
Section 6: Ultrasound-guided procedures 361
Section 7: Other ultrasound imaging applications 362
References 365
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Conscious Marmoset Monkeys: Methods and Applications in Neuroscience Research 369
Introduction 369
What is fMRI and how does it work? 371
Problems associated with fMRI in nonhuman animals 375
Applications in neuroscience research 382
References 385
Radiographic Imaging of Nonhuman Primates 387
Introduction 387
Thoracic radiograph 387
Abdominal radiograph 390
Neurologic system 398
Musculoskeletal 399
Fluoroscopy 401
Nuclear imaging 401
References 401
Imaging: Positron Emission Tomography ( PET) 403
Introduction 403
Principles of emission computed tomography 405
Non-human primate PET scanners 410
Animal procedures for PET studies 411
Anaesthesia and immobilization 413
PET application in non- human primates 414
Imaging non-human primates versus rodents 415
References 416
Current Uses in Biomedical Research 419
Use of the Primate Model in Research 421
Introduction 421
Primatology: An historical overview 422
Anatomy/physiology 423
Development of the primate model in research 423
Research utilization and advances 424
Welfare considerations 427
References 429
Chronic Diseases 433
Summary 433
Introduction 433
The rhesus monkey model of collagen- induced arthritis ( CIA) 434
Multiple sclerosis (MS) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis ( EAE) 438
Myasthenia gravis 446
References 449
Practical Approaches to Pharmacological Studies in Nonhuman Primates 453
Introduction 453
The nonhuman primate in pharmacological studies 453
Drug and test compound delivery 456
Behavior analysis as an aid in pharmacological research 460
Current pharmacological research in the nonhuman primate model 461
Conclusion 462
References 462
Nonhuman Primate Models of Human Aging 465
Background 465
Approach 466
Measurement of cognitive status 466
Diet and cardiovascular health 467
Primate diversity 467
Major topics of primate aging research 467
References 479
Primate Models of Neurological Disease 483
Introduction 483
Amnestic syndromes 483
ParkinsonÌs disease 488
AlzheimerÌs disease and amyloid angiopathy 493
Multiple sclerosis 494
Epilepsy 495
Summary 498
References 498
Genetics: A Survey of Nonhuman Primate Genetics, Genetic Management and Applications to Biomedical Research 503
The analysis of primate genomes 503
Genetic relationships among primates 507
Genetic management of primates 509
Current applications to biomedical research 511
Future directions in primate genetics 513
References 514
The Respiratory System and its Use in Research 519
Introduction 519
Nasal cavity 520
Pharynx 527
Larynx 528
Lung organization 528
Tracheobronchial airways 528
Gas exchange area 532
Overview of research uses 534
References 538
Reproduction: Male 543
Introduction 543
Which non-human primate models are used/ or should be used? 543
Main applications in male reproduction: models for biomedical research 545
References 551
Reproduction: Female 553
Historical perspective 553
Follicular growth and ovulation 554
Induced ovulation 555
Ovum and embryo recovery techniques 557
Production of precisely aged embryos 557
Contraceptive effects 559
Embryo transfer 559
In vitro fertilization 560
Other manipulative techniques and future clinical application 561
Conclusion 562
References 562
The Baboon as an Appropriate Model for the Study of Multifactoral Aspects of Human Endometriosis 565
Introduction 565
Animal models for endometriosis research 566
The role of the baboon model for study of human endometriosis 568
Conclusion 573
References 573
Virology Research 577
Introduction and scope 577
Acute viral diseases 578
Chronic viral diseases 580
Conclusion 589
References 590
Parasitic Diseases of Nonhuman Primates 595
Introduction 595
Parasitic diseases of immune- competent nonhuman primates 595
Parasitic diseases of immune-compromised nonhuman primates 600
Commonly occurring benign parasitic infections of nonhuman primates 603
Concluding remarks 605
References 606
Glossary 611
Index 623
The Taxonomy of Primates in the Laboratory Context
Groves Colin, School of Archaeology and Anthropology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
Taxonomy: Organizing nature
Taxonomy means classifying organisms. It is nowadays commonly used as a synonym for systematics, though strictly speaking systematics is a much broader sphere of interest – interrelationships, and biodiversity. At the basis of taxonomy lies that much-debated concept, the species.
Because there is so much misunderstanding about what a species is, it is necessary to give some space to discussion of the concept. The importance of what we mean by the word “species” goes way beyond taxonomy as such: it affects such diverse fields as genetics, biogeography, population biology, ecology, ethology, and biodiversity; in an era in which threats to the natural world and its biodiversity are accelerating, it affects conservation strategies (Rojas, 1992). In the present context, it is of crucial importance for understanding laboratory primates and their husbandry.
What are species? The biological species concept
Disagreement as to what precisely constitutes a species is to be expected, given that the concept serves so many functions (Vane-Wright, 1992). We may be interested in classification as such, or in the evolutionary implications of species; in the theory of species, or in simply how to recognize them; or in their reproductive, physiological, or husbandry status.
Most non-specialists probably have some vague idea that species are defined by not interbreeding with each other; usually, that hybrids between different species are sterile, or that they are incapable of hybridizing at all. Such an impression ultimately derives from the definition by Mayr (1940), whereby species are “groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups” (the Biological Species Concept). Mayr never actually said that species can’t breed with each other, indeed he denied that that this was in any way a necessary part of reproductive isolation; he merely said that, under natural conditions, they don’t.
Reproductive isolation, in some form, stands at the basis of what a species is. Having said this, it must be admitted that it is no longer possible to follow Mayr’s concept as definitive. In a recent book (Groves, 2001, see especially Chapter 3) I sketched the main reasons why this is so:
• It offers no guidance for the allocation of allopatric populations.
• Many distinct species actually do breed with each other under natural conditions, but manage to remain distinct.
• The interrelationships of organisms under natural conditions are often (usually?) unknown.
• Many species do not reproduce sexually anyway.
Allopatry
To say that two populations are allopatric means that their geographic distributions do not overlap – they are entirely separate. This means that they do not have the chance to breed with each other, even if they wanted to. There is, for example, no way of testing whether Macaca fuscata (of Japan), M.cyclopis (of Taiwan) and M.mulatta (the Rhesus Macaque, of the East Asian mainland) are actually different species or not; they are classified as distinct species in all major checklists, but there is no objective way of testing this classification under the Biological Species Concept.
Indeed, this is the usual situation: populations that differ, in some respect, from one another and are, by relevant criteria, closely related are usually allopatric. To take demonstrable reproductive isolation, the requisite criterion under the Biological Species Concept, as the sine qua non of species status would be to leave the majority of living organisms unclassifiable except by some arbitrary fiat.
Natural interbreeding
The two common species of North American deer (Odocoileus virginanus, the Whitetail, and O.hemionus, the Blacktail) are found together over a wide geographic area, and are always readily distinguishable; yet molecular studies have found evidence that there has been hybridization. For example, in Pecos Country, west Texas, four out of the nine whitetails examined had mitochondrial DNA characteristic of the blacktails with which they share their range (Carr and Hughes, 1993). Evidently in the not-too-distant past blacktail females joined whitetail breeding herds and, while the whitetail phenotype was strongly selected for, the blacktail mtDNA has remained in the population, fossil documentation of the hybridization event.
In Primates, also, there are examples of hybridization in the wild. A good example of the first case, Cercopithecus ascanius (Redtail monkey) and C.mitis (Blue monkey) in Uganda, has been described in detail by Struhsaker et al. (1988). The two monkeys, which are widely sympatric, meaning that they live in the same areas over a wide range, interbreed at quite noticeable levels, yet remain separate and clearly distinguishable and no one has ever proposed to regard them as anything but distinct species. This case is not unlike that of the North American deer, mentioned above.
These are two examples – one non-Primate, one Primate – of pairs of distinct species which manage to remain distinct over wide areas even though there is gene-flow between them. Much more common (or, better, more readily documented) are cases where pairs of species occupy ranges that are largely separate but meet along their margins (parapatric), and interbreed where they do so. Interbreeding varies from occasional to full hybrid zones, and such cases have, unlike the hybridization-in-sympatry cases, been regarded as evidence that reproductive isolation does not exist, so the two species should be merged into one. But there is no difference, in principle, from the hybridization-in-sympatry cases.
The classic study of a hybrid zone is that of two mice, Mus musculus and Mus domesticus, across the Jutland peninsula, Denmark (see summary in Wilson et al., 1985). The hybrid zone, as measured by morphology and protein alleles, is very narrow; yet the mtDNA of the southern species, M.domesticus, introgresses well across the boundary, and across the seaway (the Skagerrak) into Sweden. This suggests both that hybridization has been occurring, and that M.musculus has been expanding its range, and the hybrid zone has been moving south since before the sea broke through separating Denmark and Sweden in the early Holocene. There has been no selection against hybridization during this long period.
In a well-studied Primate example, two baboons, Papio hamadryas (Hamadryas baboon) and P.anubis (Olive baboon), are parapatric and hybridize where their ranges meet in Ethiopia, the hybrid zone being not more than a few kilometres wide. The two taxa are adapted to more arid and more mesic environments, respectively, and the hybrid zone travels up and down the Awash River according to whether there has been a run of dry seasons or a run of wet seasons, but remains more or less the same width. This case is therefore not unlike that of the two mice in Denmark. Unlike the Cercopithecus example, the two baboon taxa have been shuffled back and forth between subspecies and species (compare Jolly, 1993 and Groves, 2001). Yet what is the difference, really?
What are species? The phylogenetic species concept
Most attempts to modify the definition of a species have been modifications of the Mayr concept, and relied on reproductive status (see Groves, 2001, Chapter 3). Even without the practical problems summarized above, such definitions seem inherently flawed because they appeal to the process of how species come to be, or are maintained, when surely they should be recognized by the pattern of what they actually are. It was put succinctly by Cracraft (1983): “Evolution produces taxonomic entities, defined in terms of their evolutionary differentiation from other such forms. These entities should be called species … A species is the smallest diagnosable cluster of individual organisms within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent”. This is the Phylogenetic Species Concept.
“Diagnosable” means 100% different in one or more heritable characters. It implies that there are fixed genetic differences, though it does not require that they be demonstrable here and now in the form of DNA sequences (given advances in knowledge, presumably they will be in the fullness of time). It is as nearly objective as the evidence permits. The only query that can arise is whether a “parental pattern of ancestry and descent” exists, and this is as close to inference as the concept approaches.
In this concept, we cease to use the species as a hypothesis of relationship: each diagnosable entity is recognized as a species, and hypotheses of relationships are reserved for some other level, whether a formal taxonomic rank or an informal grouping...
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 19.9.2005 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Sachbuch/Ratgeber |
| Medizin / Pharmazie ► Allgemeines / Lexika | |
| Veterinärmedizin ► Klinische Fächer ► Versuchstiere | |
| Weitere Fachgebiete ► Land- / Forstwirtschaft / Fischerei | |
| ISBN-10 | 0-08-045416-X / 008045416X |
| ISBN-13 | 978-0-08-045416-0 / 9780080454160 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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