Veterinary Vaccines and Diagnostics (eBook)

Cover 1
Contents 6
Contributors 26
Preface 36
PART I: VACCINES AND DIAGNOSTICS: Historic and Contemporary Perspectives 6
Chapter 1. Vaccination: A Philosophical View 42
I. Introduction 42
II. Will There Be Vaccination in the Next Millenium? 43
III. What Is the Future of Veterinary Vaccinology? 45
IV. Vaccination in the Twenty-First Century 46
V. Outlook 47
Chapter 2. Grease, Anthraxgate, and Kennel Cough: A Revisionist History of Early Veterinary Vaccines 48
I. Introduction 48
II. The Origin of Vaccinia 50
III. Anthraxgate: A Minor Nineteenth-Century Scandal 52
IV. Early Canine Distemper Vaccines 58
V. Summary 63
References 64
Chapter 3. Diagnostic Medicine: The Challenge of Differentiating Infection from Disease and Making Sense for the Veterinary Clinician 66
I. Introduction 66
II. Differentiating Infection Detection from Disease Diagnosis 67
III. How Early Do We Want to Detect Infection? 72
IV. What Are the Consequences of the Results? 73
V. Where Are We Heading with Veterinary Diagnostics? 75
References 77
PART II: CONCEPTS IN IMMUNOLOGY AND VACCINOLOGY 80
Chapter 4. Genetic Effects on Vaccination 81
I. Introduction 81
II. Genetic Effects on Health and Vaccination 82
III. Strategies for Genetic Enhancement of Health 83
IV. High Immune Response Phenotype 86
V. Discussion and Summary 90
References 92
Chapter 5. Nutritional Effects on Vaccination 95
I. Vaccination Cost to Performance 95
II. Biochemical Mechanisms in Immune-Induced Wasting 96
III. Conjugated Linoleic Acid 97
IV. Cholecystokinin and Immune-Induced Anorexia 98
V. Summary 99
References 99
Chapter 6. Effects of Stress on Leukocyte Trafficking and Immune Responses: Implications for Vaccination 103
I. Introduction 103
II. Leukocyte Trafficking 107
III. Effects of Stress on Immunity 112
IV. Summary 116
References 116
Chapter 7. Role of Macrophage Cytokines in Mucosal Adjuvanticity 125
I. Introduction 125
II. Mucosal Adjuvanticity of Cholera Toxin 126
III. Mechanisms of Mucosal Adjuvanticity 134
IV. Summary 140
References 141
Chapter 8. Cholera Toxin B Subunit as an Immunomodulator for Mucosal Vaccine Delivery 147
I. Introduction 147
II. Responses to Mucosal Immunization with SBR-CTA2/B 148
III. Responses to Mucosal Immunization with Salmonella Expressing SBR-CTA2/B 150
IV. Discussion and Summary 152
References 154
Chapter 9. Deceptive Imprinting: Insights into Mechanisms of Immune Evasion and Vaccine Development 157
I. Introduction and Background 157
II. Deceptive Imprinting 159
III. Refocusing the Immune Response by Masking Epitopes Responsible for Deceptive Imprinting: Novel Approach to Vaccination 171
References 172
Chapter 10. Vaccination against Tuberculosis: Recent Progress 177
I. Introduction 177
II. Acquired Immunity and Memory Immunity to Tuberculosis Infection 178
III. Types of Vaccines 180
IV. Can We Increase Herd Resistance to Bovine Tuberculosis? 183
References 183
Chapter 11. Viral Vectors for Veterinary Vaccines 187
I. Introduction and Background 187
II. Viral Vector Construction 189
III. Advantages and Disadvantages of Viral Vectors for Vaccine Delivery 190
IV. Construction of Safer Viral Vectors for Vaccine Delivery 191
V. Examples of Reported Viral Veterinary Vaccine Vectors 193
VI. Commercially Available Viral Vaccine Vectors for Veterinary Use 193
VII. Summary 195
References 197
Chapter 12. DNA Immunization: Present and Future 205
I. Introduction 205
II. Universality of DNA Immunization 206
III. Induction of Immunity 208
IV. Role of Different Antibodies in Clearing Viruses 210
V. Vaccine Delivery 211
VI. DNA Immunization in the Face of Passive Antibody 213
VII. Regulatory 214
VIII. Epilogue 216
References 218
Chapter 13. Contribution of Advances in Immunology to Vaccine Development 223
I. Introduction 223
II. Advances in Immunology Relevant to Vaccine Development 224
III. Mechanisms of Immune Protection against Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus 229
IV. Summary 234
References 234
PART III: BOVINE VACCINES AND DIAGNOSTICS 238
Chapter 14. Bovine Viral Vaccines, Diagnostics, and Eradication: Past, Present, and Future 239
I. Introduction 239
II. Foot-and-Mouth Disease 240
III. Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis 243
IV. Bovine Virus Diarrhea 249
V. Posteradication Period 252
References 253
Chapter 15. Immunization and Diagnosis in Bovine Reproductive Tract Infections 259
I. Introduction and Background 259
II. Brucella abortus Infection 260
III. Haemophilus somnus Infection 261
IV. Campylobacter fetus subsp: venerealis Infection 263
V. Tritrichomonas foetus Infection 266
VI. Summary and Future Directions 274
References 275
Chapter 16. Progress and Expectations for Helminth Vaccines 283
I. Introduction 283
II. Vaccination Using Defined Parasite Antigens 284
III. Vaccine-Induced Immune Responses 287
IV. Simulation Models for Host-Parasite Population Dynamics 289
V. Host-Immunity and Population Dynamics of Gastrointestinal Nematode Infections 292
VI. Development of a Simple Model for Vaccination against Haemonchus 293
VII. Summary 295
References 296
Chapter 17. Vaccines and Diagnostic Methods for Bovine Mastitis: Fact and Fiction 299
I. Introduction 299
II. Vaccines for Contagious Pathogens 300
III. Vaccines for Environmental Mastitis Pathogens 305
IV. Diagnostic Methods 309
V. Summary 310
References 311
Chapter 18. T-Cell Responses and the Influence of Dendritic Cells in Cattle 317
I. Introduction 317
II. Identification of the Major T-Cell Subpopulations in Cattle 318
III. Role of Different T-Cell Populations in Vivo 318
IV. Identification of Subpopulations of CD4 and CD8 T Cells That Differ in Function 320
V. Activation Requirements and Function of .d T Cells 324
VI. T-Cell Responses Induced by Dendritic Cells 326
References 327
PART IV: CANINE AND FELINE VACCINES 331
Chapter 19. Canine Viral Vaccines at a Turning Point„A Personal Perspective 332
I. General Remarks 332
II. Veterinary Vaccines 335
III. Comments on Selected Vaccines 336
IV. Summary 345
References 348
Chapter 20. Forty Years of Canine Vaccination 352
I. Introduction 352
II. Rabies Virus 354
III. Canine Distemper Virus 354
IV. Canine Parvovirus 355
V. Canine Coronavirus 356
VI. Canine Adenovirus Type 1 (Infectious Canine Hepatitis Virus) 357
VII. Canine Adenovirus Type 2 357
VIII. Canine Parainfluenza Virus 358
IX. Bordetella bronchisptica 358
X. Borrelia burgdorferi 359
XI. Leptospirosis 360
XII. Summary 361
References 362
Chapter 21. Analysis of the Protective Immunity Induced by Feline Immunodeficiency Virus Vaccination 368
I. Introduction and Background 368
II. Whole Inactivated Virus Vaccines 369
III. Subunit Vaccines 371
IV. DNA Vaccination 372
References 374
Chapter 22. Vaccination of Cats against Emerging and Reemerging Zoonotic Pathogens 376
I. Introduction 376
II. Toxoplasma gondii 379
III. Bartonell a henselae 381
IV. Helicobacter pylori 384
V. Other Agents 384
VI. Summary 385
References 386
Chapter 23. Evaluation of Risks and Benefits Associated with Vaccination against Coronavirus Infections in Cats 390
I. Historical Perspectives of FIP 390
II. Current Status of FIP 391
III. Causative Agent of FIP 391
IV. Pathogenesis of Feline Coronavirus Infections 392
V. Immunology of Feline Coronavirus Infections 393
VI. Antibody-Dependent Enhancement 394
VII. FIP Vaccine 394
VIII. Risks of FIP Vaccination 395
IX. Benefits of FIP Vaccination 396
References 399
PART V: EQUINE VACCINES AND DIAGNOSTICS 402
Chapter 24. Diagnosis and Prevention of Equine Infectious Diseases: Present Status, Potential, and Challenges for the Future 403
I. Introduction 403
II. Viral Diseases 404
III. Bacterial Diseases 412
IV. Other Viral and Bacterial Diseases 415
V. Summary 416
References 417
Chapter 25. The Equine Influenza Surveillance Program 423
I. Introduction 423
II. 1983: WHO Informal Workshop on Vaccination against Equine Influenza 424
III. 1992: WHO/OIE Consultation on Newly Emerging Strains of Equine Influenza 425
IV. 1995: Consultation of OIE and WHO Experts on Progress in Surveillance of Equine Influenza and Application to Strain Selection 426
V. 1996: Actions Taken by the OIE 427
VI. Findings of the Expert Surveillance Panel 428
VII. Action Taken by the European Pharmacopoeia 429
VIII. Actions Taken by the Committee for Veterinary Medicinal Products 429
IX. Actions Taken by the National Institute of Biological Standardization and Control 430
X. Action Taken by the USDA 430
References 431
Chapter 26. Vaccination against Strongylus vulgaris in Ponies: Comparison of the Humoral and Cytokine Responses of Vaccinates and Nonvaccinates 433
I. Introduction 434
II. Methods 435
III. Results 439
IV. Discussion 441
References 446
Chapter 27. ISCOM: A Delivery System for Neonates and for Mucosal Administration 449
I. Introduction: Immune Stimulating Complex 449
II. The ISCOM Concept 450
III. Formation of ISCOM 450
IV. Antigen Presentation and Targeting by ISCOMs 451
V. Adjuvant Influences on the Transport of Antigen 452
VI. Adjuvants and Delivery Systems for Induction of Mucosal Immunity 453
VII. ISCOMs Induce a Cytokine Thl Type Response But Also Th2 454
VIII. Antigens Loaded in ISCOMs Induce Immune Response in Neonates 454
IX. Protective Immunity 455
References 456
Chapter 28. An Epidemiologic Approach to Evaluating the Importance of Immunoprophylaxis 459
PART VI: SWINE VACCINES 462
Chapter 29. Present Uses of and Experiences with Swine Vaccines 463
I. Introduction 463
II. Material 465
III. Results 466
IV. Discussion 469
References 471
Chapter 30. Enteric Viral Infections of Pigs and Strategies for Induction of Mucosal Immunity 473
I. Introduction and Background 473
II. Characteristics of Enteropathogenic Viruses 474
III. Mucosal Immunity to Enteropathogenic Viruses 478
References 486
Chapter 31. Use of Interleukin 12 to Enhance the Cellular Immune Response of Swine to an Inactivated Herpesvirus Vaccine 491
I. Introduction 491
II. Cytokines as Vaccine Adjuvants 492
III. Interleukin 12 and Its Ability to Modulate Acquired Immunity 493
IV. Porcine Model to Examine the Adjuvant Effect of Interleukin 12 495
V. Immune Mechanism(s) of Protective Immunity against Herpesvirus 496
VI. Interleukin 12-Mediated Enhancement of the Cell-Mediated Immune Response to an Inactivated PrV Vaccine 499
VII. Summary and Conclusion 500
References 502
Chapter 32. Swinepox Virus as a Vaccine Vector for Swine Pathogens 507
I. Introduction 507
II. Conventional Vaccines 509
III. Recombinant Virus Vectored Vaccines 511
IV. Summary 520
References 521
PART VII: POULTRY VACCINES 525
Chapter 33. Introduction to Poultry Vaccines and Immunity 526
I. Introduction 526
II. Disease Prevention by Vaccination 527
III. Vaccination Programs 529
IV. Vaccine Delivery 530
V. New Developments in Poultry Vaccines 531
VI. General Features of the Avian Immune System 532
VII. Humoral Immunity 533
VIII. Cell-Mediated Immunity 534
IX. Summary 535
References 535
Chapter 34. In Ovo Vaccination Technology 540
I. Introduction 540
II. Technology Discovery 541
III. Commercialization of In Ovo Marek's (HVT/SB1) Vaccination 542
IV. Commercialization of Other In Ovo Live Viral Vaccines 548
V. Maternal Antibody Effects on Viral Vaccine Efficacy 550
VI. Safe and Effective Vaccination in Presence of Maternal Antibodies 551
VII. Bacterial Vaccines 556
VIII. Coccidial Vaccines 557
IX. Summary 557
References 558
Chapter 35. Current and Future Recombinant Viral Vaccines for Poultry 562
I. Introduction and Background 562
II. Virus Vectors 562
III. Future Recombinant Vaccines for Poultry 564
IV. Summary 566
References 567
PART VIII: FISH, EXOTIC, AND WILDLIFE VACCINES 568
Chapter 36.Development and Use of Modified Live Edwardsiella ictaluri Vaccine against Enteric Septicemia of Catfish 569
I. Introduction 569
II. Materials and Methods 571
III. Results 573
IV. Discussion 578
V. Summary 580
References 581
Chapter 37. Fish Vaccines 585
I. Introduction 585
II. Immunization Methods in Fish 587
III. Benefit of Using Vaccine 588
IV. Vaccines against Some Specific Diseases 589
V. Summary 595
References 596
Chapter 38. Cross-Species Vaccination in Wild and Exotic Animals 597
I. Introduction 597
II. Canine Distemper Virus 597
III. Clostridium botulinum Type C 599
IV. Summary 601
References 601
Chapter 39. Some Experiments and Field Observations of Distemper in Mink and Ferrets 603
I. Introduction 603
II. Vaccines 604
III. Routes of Vaccination 608
IV. Maternal Antibody and Vaccination 608
V. Vaccination of Pregnant Female Mink 609
VI. Transplacental and Neonatal Attempts to Immunize Ferrets against CDV 610
VII. Time Interval Required to Infect Ferrets by Direct Contact 610
VIII. Experimental Epidemiology 611
IX. Future Research 613
References 614
Chapter 40. Vaccination of Wildlife against Rabies: Successful Use of a Vectored Vaccine Obtained by Recombinant Technology 617
I. Introduction and Background 617
II. Raboral V-RG: A Rabies Vaccine Created by Recombinant Technology 618
III. USDA Testing of Recombinant Vaccines 619
IV. Controlling Raccoon Rabies 622
V. Rabies in Texas: Coyotes and Gray Foxes 626
VI. Summary 627
References 628
PART IX: REGULATION, LICENSING, AND STANDARDIZATION OF VACCINES AND DIAGNOSTICS 630
Chapter 41. Authorities and Procedures for Licensing Veterinary Biological Products in the United States 631
I. Introduction 631
II. Organization 632
III. Licensing Procedures for Conventional Vaccines and Bacterins 633
IV. Licensing Procedures for Nonconventional Products 636
V. Conditional Licenses 637
VI. Licenses for Further Manufacture 637
VII. Sublicensing 638
VIII. Exemptions to Licensure 638
IX. Autogenous Products 638
X. Summary 639
Reference 639
Chapter 42. Licensing Procedures for Immunological Veterinary Medicinal Products in the European Union 641
I. Introduction 641
II. Role of the European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products 642
III. Available European Procedures 643
IV. New Definitions of Veterinary Biologicals 644
V. Revision-Validation of Vaccines Already on the Market 646
VI. Manufacturing Authorization 647
VII. Batch Control/Release 648
VIII. Special Case of Equine Influenza Vaccines 648
IX. Role of the European Pharmacopoeia 650
X. Summary 653
References 653
Chapter 43. International Association of Biological Standardization and International Harmonization 655
I. introduction 655
II. Introducing the IABS 656
III. A Case Study: Report of the Avian Products Standardization Committee (March 1979) 658
Chapter 43.Technical Requirements for the Licensing of Pseudorabies (Aujeszky's Disease) Vaccines in the European Union 661
I. Introduction 661
II. Safety Testing 662
III. Efficacy Testing 666
IV. Batch Release Controls 670
V. Summary 670
References 671
Chapter 44. Specific Licensing Considerations for Modified Live Pseudorabies Vaccines in the United States 673
I. Introduction 673
II. Licensing Considerations 674
Reference 678
Chapter 45. Why Do Vaccine Labels Say the Funny Things They Do? 679
I. Introduction 679
II. Vaccine Label Expectations 680
III. Vaccine Label Reality 680
IV. Recommendations for Standardization Improvements 686
Chapter 46. Standardization of Diagnostic Assays for Animal Acute Phase Proteins 689
I. Introduction and Background 689
II. Acute Phase Protein in Animals 691
III. Methods of Acute Phase Protein Assay 693
IV. Standardization of Acute Phase Protein Assays 695
References 699
Chapter 47. Vaccination Practices in Veterinary Medicine: Standardization versus Tailored to Needs? 703
I. Introduction 703
II. Can We Standardize Vaccination Practices? 704
III. Are We Vaccinating Too Much? 708
IV. Consequences for the Animal Health Industry 711
V. Summary 714
Chapter 48. International Harmonization of Standards for Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines: Role of the Office International des Epizooties 715
I. Introduction 715
II. Organization and Structure 716
III. Specialist Commissions 718
IV. Standards Commission 718
V. Summary 723
References 725
PART X: ADVERSE VACCINE REACTIONS, FAILURES, AND POSTMARKETING SURVEILLANCE 726
Chapter 49. Mechanistic Bases for Adverse Vaccine Reactions and Vaccine Failures 727
I. Introduction 728
II. Adverse Vaccine Reactions 730
III. Vaccine Failure 737
IV. Summary 742
References 742
Chapter 50. Weighing the Risks and Benefits of Vaccination 747
I. Defining the Problem 747
II. Vaccine Risk Assessment 748
III. Current Sources of Data on Adverse Reactions 749
IV. Suggested Improvements in Postmarketing Surveillance 752
V. Risk Management and Risk Communication 755
VI. Summary 756
References 758
Chapter 51. More Bumps on the Vaccine Road 761
I. Introduction and Background 761
II. Overview of Adverse Effects of Vaccines 762
III. Breed Study Examples 765
IV. Periodicity of Booster Vaccination 770
V. Alternative Strategies to Conventional Vaccination 773
VI. Summary and Future Directions 775
References 775
Chapter 52. Vaccine-Induced Autoimmunity in the Dog 779
I. Introduction 779
II. Materials and Methods 781
III. Results 783
IV. Discussion 786
References 791
Chapter 53. An Introduction to Analytical Methods for the Postmarketing Surveillance of Veterinary Vaccines 795
I. Introduction 795
II. Postmarketing Surveillance and Public Policy 796
III. Postmarketing Surveillance Datum 797
IV. Fathoming Spontaneous Adverse Event Report Data 800
V. Quantitative Analysis of Adverse Event Report Data 804
VI. Summary 815
References 819
Index 821