Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths (eBook)

Interpretation ofMicromorphologicalFeatures of Soils andRegoliths 2
Copyright 5
Contents 6
Contributors 26
Preface 30
List of Abbreviations 32
Chapter 1. Micromorphology as a Tool inSoil and Regolith Studies 34
1. Introduction 34
2. Soil and Regolith Genesis 35
3. Soil and Regolith Classification 36
4. Palaeopedology, Quaternary Geologyand Archaeology 37
5. Soil Management and Other Applications 38
6. Correlations Between Micromorphologyand Physical Data 39
7. Monitoring Experimental Work and Analyses 39
8. Conclusions 41
References 41
Chapter 2. Micromorphological Featuresand Their Relation toProcesses and Classification:General Guidelines and Keys 48
1. Introduction 48
1.1 Criteria for in situ Formation and Relative Chronology 48
1.2 Relicts of the Parent Material 50
2. Key to Features 51
2.1 Microstructure and c/f-Related Distribution Patterns 52
2.2 Groundmass 57
2.3. Organic material 60
2.4. Pedofeatures 61
References 66
Chapter 3. Colluvial and Mass Wasting Deposits 70
1. Introduction 70
2. General Features of Translocated Material 71
3. Colluvial Deposits 72
3.1. Laminated Colluvium 72
3.2. Non-laminated Colluvium 74
3.3. Post-depositional Alterations 74
4. Mass Wasting Deposits 75
4.1. Solifluction deposits 76
4.2. Landslides 76
4.3. Debris-flow deposits 77
4.4. Grain-flow deposits 78
5. Conclusions 79
Acknowledgments 79
References 79
Chapter 4. Saprolites 82
1. Introduction 82
2. The Saprolite Profile 83
3. General Micromorphological Features 83
4. Saprolites on Specific Lithological Rock Types 85
4.1. Igneous Rocks 85
4.2. Metamorphic Rocks 91
4.3. Sedimentary Rocks 95
5. Conclusions 96
References 96
Chapter 5. Pedoplasmation: Formation of Soil Material 102
1. Introduction 102
2. General Features 103
3. Disappearance of the Original Rock Fabric 104
4. Development of Microstructure and Porosity 106
5. Other Changes 107
5.1. Changes in Grain-Size Distribution 107
5.2. Colour Homogenisation and Limpidity Changes 107
5.3. Changes of the b-Fabric 108
6. Pedoplasmation on Carbonate Rocks 109
7. Conclusions 111
References 111
Chapter 6. Frost Action 114
1. Introduction 114
2. Microstructure 116
2.1. Platy and Lenticular Microstructure 116
2.2. Granular Microstructure 123
2.3. Microstructure Stability 124
3. Groundmass 126
3.1. Micromass 126
3.2. Coarse Material 126
4. Pedofeatures 129
5. Implications for Pedostratigraphy 134
6. Summary and Conclusions 135
References 137
Chapter 7. Vertic Features 142
1. Introduction 142
2. Microstructure 143
3. Groundmass 145
3.1. Coarse Fraction 145
3.2. Micromass 146
3.3. Pedofeatures 149
4. Degradation of Vertic Features in Cultivated Soils 153
5. Vertic Features in Palaeosoils 154
6. Conclusions 154
References 155
Chapter 8. Redoximorphic Features 162
1. Introduction 162
2. General Genetic Aspects 163
3. Nature and Identification 164
3.1. Intrusive Redox Pedofeatures 165
3.2. Impregnative Redox Pedofeatures 166
3.3. Depletion Redox Pedofeatures 168
4. Significance 169
4.1. Duration of Water Saturation 169
4.2. Special Cases 172
4.3. Relict versus Contemporary Features 173
5. Conclusions 175
References 175
Chapter 9. Calcium Carbonate Features 182
1. Introduction 182
1.1. Carbonate Mineralogy 182
1.2. Microscopic Techniques 183
1.3. Terminology 184
2. Groundmass 185
2.1. Coarse Fraction 185
2.2. Micromass 187
3. Pedofeatures 187
3.1. Coatings 187
3.2. Hypo- and Quasi-Coatings 191
3.3. Infillings 192
3.4. Nodules 196
3.5. Root-Related Features 198
3.6. Calcified Filaments 202
3.7. Biogenic Crystal Intergrowths 203
4. Recrystallisation and Dissolution 207
4.1. Recrystallisation 207
4.2. Dissolution 208
5. Associated Features 209
5.1. Dissolution of Silicate Minerals 209
5.2. Calcium Oxalate Occurrences 211
6. Formations with Combinations of Calcareous Features 213
6.1. Palustrine Carbonates 213
6.2. Complex Calcrete Profiles 214
7. Conclusions 214
References 215
Chapter 10. Gypsic Features 228
1. Introduction 228
2. Crystal Morphology 229
2.1. Occurrences in Nature 229
2.2. Experimental Studies 230
3. Groundmass 231
3.1. Powdery Gypsic Materials 233
3.2. Microcrystalline gypsic materials 233
3.3. Rupture-resistant Gypsic Materials 234
3.4. Aeolian Gypsic Materials 236
4. Pedofeatures 236
4.1. Infillings and Coatings 237
4.2. Nodules 237
4.3. Crystals and Crystal Intergrowths 238
5. Other Features Common in Soils with Gypsum 241
5.1. Dissolution Features 241
5.2. Calcite Pseudomorphs 242
6. Discussion and Conclusions 243
References 244
Chapter 11. Textural Pedofeatures and Related Horizons 250
1. Introduction 250
2. Clay Coatings 251
2.1. General Characteristics 251
2.2. Confusion with Micromorphologically Similar Features 252
2.3. Formation 253
2.4. Destruction and Alteration 257
2.5. Related Features 261
3. Textural Pedofeatures Other Than Clay Coatings 261
3.1. Coarse-Grained Coatings 261
3.2. Layered Coatings 262
3.3. Infillings 262
3.4. Silt Cappings 263
4. Horizons Related to Occurrences of TexturalPedofeatures 263
4.1. General Aspects 263
4.2. Argic Horizon 264
4.3. Agric Horizons 266
4.4. Natric Horizons 266
4.5. Nitic Horizons 267
4.6. Beta-Horizons 267
4.7. Argic Horizons in Palaeosoils 268
4.8. Eluvial Horizons 268
5. Quantification of Clay Illuviation 270
6. Conclusions 272
Acknowledgments 273
References 273
Chapter 12. Spodic Materials 284
1. Introduction 284
2. Spodic Horizons and Ortstein 286
2.1. Microstructure and c/f-Related Distribution 287
2.2. Coarse Material 288
2.3. Fine Organic Material 290
2.4. Short-Range-Order Aluminosilicates 294
3. Related Horizons 294
3.1. Surface Horizons 294
3.2. Eluvial (Albic and/or E) Horizons 295
3.3. Placic Horizons 297
3.4. Other Horizons 299
4. Conclusions 299
References 300
Chapter 13. Regoliths and Soils on Volcanic Ash 308
1. Introduction 308
2. Microstructure 309
3. Groundmass 313
3.1. Coarse Material 313
3.2. Micromass 321
4. Organic Material 323
5. Pedofeatures 324
5.1. Illuvial Clay Coatings 324
5.2. Authigenic Clay Coatings 325
5.3. Other Pedofeatures 326
6. Conclusions 328
Acknowledgements 329
References 329
Chapter 14. Oxic and Related Materials 338
1. Introduction 338
2. Microstructure 339
2.1. General Features 339
2.2. Origin of Granular Aggregates 340
2.3. Degree of Development and Degradation of theGranular Microstructure 343
3. Groundmass 345
3.1. c/f-Related Distribution 345
3.2. Coarse Mineral Material 345
3.3. Fine Mineral Material 348
3.4. Organic Material 349
4. Pedofeatures 349
4.1. Channel Infillings and Coatings 349
4.2. Iron Oxide Pedofeatures 350
4.3. Gibbsite Coatings and Nodules 350
4.4. Clay Coatings and Infillings 351
4.5. Siliceous Pedofeatures 353
6. Conclusions 353
References 353
Chapter 15. Lateritic and Bauxitic Materials 362
1. Introduction 362
1.1. Historical Background 362
1.2. Definition of Laterite 363
1.3. The Standard Laterite Profile 364
2. Ferritic Laterites 365
2.1. Soft Laterite or Mottled Clay Zone 365
2.2. Hard Laterite 367
2.3. Gravel-Rich Layer 374
3. Bauxites and Bauxitic Laterites 375
4. Conclusions 378
References 379
Chapter 16. Topsoils – Mollic, Takyric and Yermic Horizons 384
1. Introduction 384
2. Organo-Mineral Surface Horizons 385
2.1. General Features 385
2.2. Mollic Horizon 386
3. Surface Horizons in Desert Soils 393
3.1. Takyric Horizons 394
3.2. Yermic Horizons 395
4. Conclusions 397
References 397
Chapter 17. Soil Organic Matter 402
1. Introduction 402
2. Organic Materials 403
2.1. Fresh Materials 403
2.2. Decomposed Materials 404
2.3. Charcoal and Related Materials 409
3. Soil Organic Matter Horizons and Profiles 410
3.1. Moder 413
3.2. Mull 415
3.3. Anmoor 416
3.4. Mor 416
4. Peat and Related Materials 416
4.1. Peat 416
4.2. Dy, Gyttja and Sapropel 418
5. Organic Pedofeatures in Mineral Horizons 419
6. Organic Sedimentary Features 421
7. Applications and Conclusions 422
References 423
Chapter 18. Features Related to Faunal Activity 430
1. Introduction 430
1.1. Soil Fauna and Micromorphology 430
1.2. Diversity of the Impact of Soil Fauna on Soils 432
2. Faunal Voids 435
2.1. Channels 435
2.2. Chambers 437
2.3. Modified Voids 438
3. Pedofeatures 439
3.1. Excrements 439
3.2. Coatings 441
3.3. Infillings 442
3.4. Other Pedofeatures 442
4. Features Related to Faunal Impact on Profile Development 444
5. Conclusions 446
Acknowledgments 447
References 447
Chapter 19. Physical and Biological Surface Crusts and Seals 452
1. Introduction 452
2. Physical Crusts 455
2.1. Structural Crusts 456
2.2. Sedimentary Crusts 461
3. Biological Soil Crusts 466
4. Conclusions 467
References 468
Chapter 20. Salt Minerals in Saline Soils and Salt Crusts 474
1. Introduction 474
2. Halite 476
3. Thenardite and Mirabilite 479
4. Bloedite 481
5. Other Highly Soluble Salt Minerals 482
5.1. Chlorides 482
5.2. Sulphates 482
5.3. Sodium Carbonates 484
5.4. Nitrates 485
6. Bassanite and Anhydrite 485
7. Poorly Soluble Sulphate Minerals 488
7.1. Celestite 488
7.2. Kalistrontite 489
7.3. Barite 490
8. Mineral Assemblages 492
9. Conclusions 493
References 494
Chapter 21. Pedogenic and Biogenic Siliceous Features 504
1. Introduction 504
2. Forms of Silica 505
2.1. Quartz and Chalcedony 505
2.2. Cristobalite and Tridymite 507
2.3. Opal 508
3. Non-Biogenic Silica 511
3.1. Silcretes 513
3.2. Duripans 515
3.3. Fragipans 517
4. Biogenic Silica 518
4.1. Phytoliths 518
4.2. Other Forms of Biogenic Silica 520
5. Conclusions 521
References 521
Chapter 22. Authigenic Silicate Minerals – Sepiolite-Palygorskite,Zeolites and Sodium Silicates 530
1. Introduction 530
2. Sepiolite and Palygorskite 530
2.1. Thin Section Studies 531
2.2. Transmission Electron Microscopy 534
2.3. Scanning Electron Microscopy 535
3. Zeolites 537
3.1. Thin Section Studies 538
3.2. Transmission Electron Microscopy 541
3.3. Scanning Electron Microscopy 541
4. Sodium Silicates 542
5. Conclusions 544
References 544
Chapter 23. Phosphatic Features 554
1. Introduction 554
2. Phosphate Occurrences as Groundmass Components 557
2.1. Coarse Fraction 557
2.2. Micromass 559
2.3. Guano Deposits 562
3. Phosphate Occurrences as Pedofeatures 564
4. Conclusions 570
References 570
Chapter 24. Sulphidic and Sulphuric Materials 576
1. Introduction 576
2. Sulphidic Materials 576
2.1. Pyrite 577
2.2. Sulphides Other than Pyrite 582
2.3. General Fabric of Sulphidic Layers 582
3. Sulphuric Materials 583
3.1. Jarosite 583
3.2. Iron Oxides 585
3.3. Gypsum 587
3.4. Silica 588
3.5. Other Minerals 588
4. Sulphide Oxidation Products in Contexts other thanAcid Sulphate Soils 589
4.1. Jarosite 590
4.2. Gypsum 591
4.3. Other Sulphate Minerals 591
5. Conclusions 592
References 593
Chapter 25. Anthropogenic Features 602
1. Introduction 602
2. Microstructure 604
2.1. Agricultural Soils 604
2.2. Technosols 607
3. Groundmass 608
3.1. Coarse Mineral Components 608
3.2. Micromass 609
4. Organic Components 610
5. Pedofeatures 611
5.1. Large-scale Field Practices 611
5.2. Urban Soils 615
6. Conclusions 615
References 616
Chapter 26. Archaeological Materials 622
1. Introduction 622
2. Natural Soils and Sediments Employed in Construction 622
2.1. Turf 623
2.2. Ground-Raising Constructional Materials 625
2.3. Floors, Surfaces and Walls 628
2.4. Organic Floor Coverings 631
3. Waste Materials 632
3.1. Inorganic Waste Materials 632
3.2. Organic Waste Materials 635
4. Manufactured Materials 642
4.1. Stone Tools 642
4.2. Plasters and Mortars 643
4.3. Metal Working 644
5. Conclusions 646
Acknowledgments 647
References 647
Chapter 27. Palaeosoils and Relict Soils 656
1. Introduction 656
2. Methodology 657
2.1. Recognition of Palaeosoils and Relict Soils 657
2.2. Reconstruction of History 660
3. Common Types of Hierarchies 664
3.1. Textural Features 665
3.2. Ferruginous Features 669
3.3. Calcitic Facies 672
4. Reworked Materials 674
4.1. In situ Soil Reworking and Mass Transportation 674
4.2. Transport in Suspension 678
4.3. Aeolian Processes 678
5. Palaeoenvironmental Significance 680
6. Transitions in Palaeosoil Sequences and Their Significance 682
7. Reconstruction of The History of Relict Soils 684
8. Dating Palaeosoil Development 686
9. Diagenesis 686
10. Conclusions 687
References 687
Author Index 696
Subject Index 740