Organic Xenobiotics and Plants (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 8
Part I:Principles of Transport,Deposition and Uptake 10
Plant Uptake of Xenobiotics 11
Introduction 11
Root Uptake 12
Soil-Root Interactions 12
Transfer from Roots to Other Plant Parts 14
Soil-Root Interactions for Ionic Chemicals 15
Leaf Uptake 16
Vapour or Gas Uptake from Ambient Air 16
Particulate Deposition on Plant Surfaces 17
Other Factors Controlling Plant Uptake of Organic Chemicals 18
Accumulating Species 19
Lipid Composition 19
Foliage 19
Plant Metabolism 20
Growth Dilution 20
Conclusion 21
References 21
Haloorganics in Temperate Forest Ecosystems: Sources, Transport and Degradation 25
Introduction 26
Sources 27
Sea Salt 27
Erosion and Weathering 28
Fires 28
Volcanoes 28
Other Natural Abiotic Sources 29
Production by Organisms 29
Intentional Biotic Production 30
Antibiotics 30
The Role of Chlorinated Organic Compounds in Microbial Metabolism 31
Unintentional Biotic Production 32
De-icing Salt 33
Other Anthropogenic Sources 33
Transport Within the Ecosystem 34
Leaching 35
Volatilisation 36
Role of Fire 38
Plant Litter 38
Degradation 39
Abiotic Degradation 39
Biotic Degradation 39
Site Budgets 44
Gaps in Knowledge 45
References 46
Semivolatiles in the Forest Environment: The Case of PAHs 54
Introduction to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 54
Properties of PAHs 56
Sources of PAHs 58
Spatial Patterns and Trends of PAH Emissions and Advection 59
The Fate of PAHs in Forests 63
Interaction of Air Masses with the Forest Canopy 65
Deposition of PAHs 65
Levels of PAHs in Leaves and Needles 68
PAHs in the Litter and the Soil 70
Deposition of PAHs 70
Levels of PAHs in Soils 72
Effects of PAHs on Ecosystems 74
References 77
Part II:Case Studies 81
A Case Study: Uptake and Accumulation of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Cucurbitaceae Species 82
Introduction 82
The Cucurbitaceae Family 84
POPs and Cucurbita Species 85
DDT/DDE/DDD 85
Dieldrin and Endrin 85
Heptachlor 86
Chlordane 86
Polychlorinated Biphenyls 86
Dioxins and Furans 87
Conclusions 87
References 88
Trichloroacetic Acid in the Forest Ecosystem 91
Introduction 91
Properties of Trichloroacetic Acid and Its Occurrence in the Environment 92
Plants and TCA 93
Physiological Effects 96
The Role of the Rhizosphere 99
Conclusions 101
References 102
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Switzerland Related to Long-Range Transboundary Transport – Results of a Case Study with Special Emphasis on the Spatial Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic and Chlorinated Air Borne Pollutants 108
Introduction 109
Material and Methods 109
Results and Discussion 111
Short Chain Chlorinated Paraffin’s (CFCs) 111
Chlorobenzenes 111
Hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH) 111
Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs) 111
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 117
Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Furans (PCDDs/PCDFs) 117
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 120
Conclusion 121
References 123
Part III:Pollutant Degradationand Ecosystem Remediation fromEnzymes to Whole Plants 125
New Perspectives on the Metabolism and Detoxification of Synthetic Compounds in Plants 126
Introduction 126
The Plant Xenome and Its Organization 128
Detoxifying Enzymes 130
Phase 1 Enzymes – Oxido-Reductases 130
Phase 1 Enzymes – Hydrolases 132
Phase 2 Enzymes – Glutathione Transferases (Gsts) 133
Phase 2 Enzymes – Glycosyltransferases 136
Phase 2 Enzymes – Malonyltransferases 138
Phase 3 Transport Processes – ABC Transporter Proteins 139
Phase 4 – Further Processing of Xenobiotics 140
Up-Regulation of the Xenome and Xenobiotic Resistance 142
Conclusion 144
References 144
Using Plants to Remove Foreign Compounds from Contaminated Water and Soil 150
Introduction 151
Phytoremediation of Organics 151
Selection of Plants for Phytoremediation 151
The Applicability of Phytoremediation 152
Sulphonated Aromatic Compounds in Wastewater 154
Limits of Microbial Degradability 155
Potential of Phytotreatment 156
Azo Dyes in Industrial Effluents 161
Conventional Dye Treatments 166
Azo-Dyes Phytoremediation 167
Rhizodegradation 168
Phytodegradation 168
Hydrophobic Compounds: Phytoremediation of PCB-Contaminated Soils 172
Phytoextraction 175
Phytodegradation 176
Rhizoremediation 177
Bioaugmentation by Rhizosphere Colonising Strains 178
Use of Activated Carbon 179
Conclusions: Phytoremediation Trends for the Near Future 181
References 182
Biodegradation of Organic Xenobiotic Pollutants in the Rhizosphere 191
Introduction 192
Biodegradation and Rhizoremediation of Xenobiotics Using Rhizospheric Bacteria 194
Biodegradation in the Rhizosphere and Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria 194
Rhizoremediation of Organic Pollutants 196
Biodegradation of Xenobiotics with the Help of Mycorrhizal Fungi 202
Practical Implementation of Plant-Microbial Systems in PAHs Biodegradation 204
References 208
Bioindicators and Biomonitors: Use of Organisms to Observe the Influence of Chemicals on the Environment* 216
Introduction 217
General Information on the Environment 220
Specific Information on the Environment 221
Definitions 223
Further Studies and Outlook: MMBC and Teaching Guidelines 226
References 230
SAR Based Computational Models as Decision Making Tools in Bioremediation 236
Introduction 237
Computational Models Based on QSAR 238
Target Level 238
Chemical Structures 239
Molecular Descriptors 240
Data Analysis and Model Construction 241
Expert Systems 242
QSAR and Expert Systems in Bioremediation 244
Chemical Persistence, Bioaccumulation and Toxicity 244
Prediction of Persistence/Biodegradation 245
BIOWIN 245
TOPKAT 246
MULTICASE 246
CATABOL 246
TOXTREE 246
PBT Profiler 247
AMBIT XT 247
OECD QSAR Toolbox 248
Prediction of Bioaccumulation 249
BCF Prediction Tools 249
Accumulation/Concentration in Soil 250
Prediction of Toxicity 250
Biotransformation 252
Microbial Metabolism 252
Software Tools 253
Commercial Systems for Biotranformation 254
Phytoremediation 255
Conclusions 256
References 257
State-of-the-Art Chemical Analyses: Xenobiotics, Plant Proteomics, and Residues in Plant Based Products 259
Complex Sample Analyses and System Biology 259
Metabolic Profiling of Xenobiotics 262
Proteomics: An Overview 262
Proteomics in Plants 263
Experimental Design of Plant Developmental Proteome Analyses 264
Plant Proteome Analysis 266
Protein Profiling in Plants 266
Analytical Techniques 269
Chromatography 269
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 269
Spectroscopy 270
Mass Spectrometry (MS) and Ion Mobility (IMS) 270
Mass Spectrometry 270
Ion Mobility Spectrometry 272
Quantitative Plant Proteomics 273
Analysis of Post Translational Modifications in Plant Proteins 273
Phosphorylation 275
Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) Modification 276
Ubiquitination 276
Proteomics in Plant Stress Response 277
Abiotic Stresses 277
Biotic Stresses 279
Oxidative Stresses 279
Protection of Tissues from Oxidative Damage 280
Proteomics Analysis in Symbionts Plants with Soil Microbes 281
Emerging Technologies for Sensitive Metabolic Flux Analysis 282
Plant Proteomics as a Tool to Identify Xenobiotics 283
Mass Spectrometry in “X-omics” Studies 284
Top-down and Bottom-up Mass Spectrometry 284
Ion Fragmentation Techniques for Biomolecular Sequencing in MSn 285
Performance Characteristics of Various Mass Spectrometers 287
Components of Mass Spectrometers 287
Data Related Parameters (MRP, MMA, LOD) 289
Future Directions and Challenges 291
References 292
Index 305