Veterinary Psychopharmacology

Sharon Crowell-Davis, DVM, PhD, DACVB, is a Professor of Behavioral Medicine in the Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Diagnostic Imaging, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia, USA.

Thomas Murray, PhD, is Professor of Pharmacology and Provost of Creighton University in Omaha, Nebraska, USA.

Leticia Mattos de Souza Dantas, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVB is a Clinical Assistant Professor of Behavioral Medicine at the University of Georgia's Veterinary Teaching Hospital and the Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Diagnostic Imaging at the College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia, USA. She is also the Director and Co-founder of ZooPsych, Inc., a consultancy in Clinical Behavioral Medicine & Therapy in Georgia, USA.

Contributors xxi

Preface xxiii

Acknowledgments xxv

Part I Principles of Veterinary Psychopharmacology 1

1 General Principles of Psychopharmacology 3
Thomas F. Murray

Drug Action 3

Dose Dependence of Drug Interaction with Receptors 4

Structural Features of the Central Nervous System (CNS) and Neurotransmission 5

Biogenic Amine Neurotransmitters and Affective Disorders 8

2 Amino Acid Neurotransmitters: Glutamate, GABA, and the Pharmacology of Benzodiazepines 11
Thomas F. Murray

Introduction 11

Glutamatergic Synapses 11

Pharmacology of Ketamine and Tiletamine 14

GABAergic Synapses 15

3 Biogenic Amine Neurotransmitters: Serotonin 21
Thomas F. Murray

Introduction 21

The Biogenic Amines 21

Serotonin 22

4 Biogenic Amine Transmitters: Acetylcholine, Norepinephrine, and Dopamine 29
Thomas F. Murray

Acetylcholine 29

Norepinephrine 32

Dopamine 37

5 Neuropeptides: Opioids and Oxytocin 43
Thomas F. Murray

Introduction 43

Endogenous Opioid Peptides 43

Oxytocin 47

Part II Practice of Veterinary Psychopharmacology 51

6 Introduction to Clinical Psychopharmacology for Veterinary Medicine 53
Sharon L. Crowell‐Davis and Leticia Mattos de Souza Dantas

Introduction 53

Prescribing in the United States: The Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act (AMDUCA 1994) 54

Cost 55

Drug Selection 56

Medicating the Patient 57

Competition Animals 58

Taking the Behavioral History 58

The Behavioral Exam 63

Duration of Treatment 63

Limitations 64

7 Benzodiazepines 67
Leticia Mattos de Souza Dantas and Sharon L. Crowell-Davis

Action 67

Overview of Indications 67

Contraindications, Side Effects, and Adverse Events 69

Overdose 69

Clinical Guidelines 69

Specific Medications 71

I. Alprazolam 71

II. Chlordiazepoxide HC1 73

IV. Clorazepate Dipotassium 78

V. Diazepam 80

VI. Flurazepam Hydrochloride 86

VII. Lorazepam 87

VIII. Oxazepam 89

IX. Triazolam 91

8 Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors 103
Niwako Ogata, Leticia Mattos de Souza Dantas, and Sharon L. Crowell‐Davis

Action 103

Overview of Indications 103

Contraindications, Side Effects, and Adverse Events 104

Adverse Drug Interactions 104

Overdose 105

Clinical Guidelines 105

Specific Medications 106

I. Citalopram Hydrobromide 106

II. Fluoxetine Hydrochloride 108

III. Fluvoxamine 115

IV. Paroxetine Hydrochloride 117

V. Sertraline Hydrochloride 119

VI. Escitalopram Oxalate 122

9 Miscellaneous Serotonergic Agents 129
Leticia Mattos de Souza Dantas and Sharon L. Crowell‐Davis

Introduction 129

Azapirones 129

Action 129

Overview of Indications 129

Contraindications, Side Effects, and Adverse Events 129

Adverse Drug Interactions 129

Overdose 129

Clinical Guidelines 129

Specific Medications 130

I. Buspirone 130

I. Trazodone Hydrochloride 135

10 Anticonvulsants and Mood Stabilizers 147
Sharon L. Crowell‐Davis, Mami Irimajiri, and Leticia Mattos de Souza Dantas

Action 147

Overview of Indications 148

Clinical Guidelines 148

Specific Medications 148

I. Carbamazepine 148

II. Gabapentin 149

III. Pregabalin 152

11 Sympatholytic Agents 157
Niwako Ogata and Leticia Mattos de Souza Dantas

Action 157

Overview of Indications 157

Contraindications, Side Effects, and Adverse Events 158

Overdose 159

Clinical Guidelines 159

Specific Medications 160

I. Clonidine 160

II. Detomidine 161

III. Dexmedetomidine 163

IV. Propranolol 165

12 N‐Methyl‐D‐Aspartate (NMDA) Receptor Antagonists 171
Niwako Ogata and Leticia Mattos de Souza Dantas

Action 171

Overview of Indications 172

Contraindications/ Side Effects, and Adverse Events 172

Clinical Guidelines 173

Specific Medications 173

I. Dextromethorphan 173

II. Amantadine 175

III. Memantine 176

IV. Huperzine A 179

13 Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors 185
Leticia Mattos de Souza Dantas and Sharon L. Crowell‐Davis

Action 185

Overview of Indications 186

Specific Medications 186

I. Selegiline Hydrochloride 186

14 Antipsychotics 201
Lynne Seibert and Sharon Crowell‐Davis

Introduction 201

Action 201

Overview of Indications 202

General Pharmacokinetics 203

Contraindications, Side Effects, and Adverse Events 203

Overdose 203

Clinical Guidelines 204

Specific Medications 204

I. Acepromazine Maleate 204

II. Azaperone 206

III. Chlorpromazine 206

IV. Clozapine 207

V. Fluphenazine 208

VI. Haloperidol 209

VII. Pimozide 210

VIII. Promazine 211

IX. Sulpiride 211

X. Thioridazine 212

15 CNS Stimulants 217
Sharon L. Crowell‐Davis

Action 217

Overview of Indications 217

Contraindications, Side Effects, and Adverse Events 217

Adverse Drug Interactions 217

Overdose 217

Clinical Guidelines 218

Specific Medications 219

I. Amphetamine 219

II. Atomoxetine HCl 221

III. Methylphenidate Hydrochloride 223

16 Tricyclic Antidepressants 231
Sharon L. Crowell‐Davis

Action 231

Overview of Indications 231

Contraindications, Side Effects, and Adverse Events 232

Adverse Drug Interactions 232

Overdose 232

Discontinuation 233

Clinical Guidelines 233

Specific Medications 233

I. Amitriptyline 233

II. Clomipramine Hydrochloride 236

III. Desipramine 243

IV. Doxepin 244

V. Imipramine 246

VI. Nortriptyline 248

17 Opioids and Opioid Antagonists 257
Leticia Mattos de Souza Dantas and Sharon L. Crowell‐Davis

Action 257

Overview of Indications 257

Contraindications, Side Effects, and Adverse Events 258

Clinical Guidelines 258

Specific Medications 258

I. Nalmefene 258

II. Naloxone HCl 260

III. Naltrexone Hydrochloride 261

IV. Pentazocine 264

18 Hormones 269
Sharon L. Crowell‐Davis

Introduction 269

Oxytocin 270

Clinical Pharmacology 270

Indications 270

Side Effects 270

Doses in Nonhuman Animals 270

Effects Documented in Nonhuman Animals 270

Progestins 270

Action 270

Overview of Indications 271

Contraindications, Side Effects, and Adverse Events 271

Overdose 271

Clinical Guidelines 272

Specific Medications 272

I. Medroxyprogesterone Acetate (MPA) 272

II. Megestrol Acetate 273

19 Combinations 281
Leticia Mattos de Souza Dantas, Sharon L. Crowell‐Davis, and Niwako Ogata

Introduction 281

Overview of Drug Augmentation 281

Potentially Beneficial Combinations 282

Adverse Interactions and Contraindications 283

Changing and Weaning Patients off Medications 285

Cytochrome P450 (CYP) 285

Interactions That Can Affect Dosing 285

Algorithms: Possible Future Direction 286

Conclusion 288

Index 291