Trace Elements in Coal and Coal Combustion Residues

Robert F. Keefer is a Professor in the Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, College of Agriculture and Forestry, at West Virginia University. Afterreceiving his B.S. in general agriculture from Cornell University and his M.S. and Ph.D. in soil science (agronomy) from Ohio State University, he worked two years as an organic chemist with Hercules Powder Company, and began his academic and research career in 1965 with West Virginia University. He has taught Soil Fertility, Soil Conservation and Management, Advanced Soil Fertility, the Chem­istry of Soil Organic Matter, and part of a team-taught course on Plant Disorders. He devoted a year to teaching, conducting research, and developing a graduate program in soil science at Makerere University in Uganda and assisted one of his graduate students in Togo (West Africa). Dr. Keefer's research has been broad- beginning with soil fertility and soil test correlation, then branching into plant nutrition/soil chemistry relationship, especially dealing with micronutrients. Interest over the years shifted to use of agricultural manures, municipal wastes such as sewage sludge, and industrial by­products such as coal ashes and sawdust, particularly with respect to environmen­tal aspects of plant nutrition, toxicities, and heavy metal transport in soils, waters, plants, and animals. The geographical positioning of West Virginia in the center of the eastern U.S. coal field and the recent concern with maintaining or improving the quality of our environment led Dr. Keefer to develop a research program emphasizing construc­tive use of coal combustion by-products in reclaiming surface-mined land. His proficiency in this area is evidenced by the many calls he receives on this topic. Dr. Keefer's recent sabbatical was devoted mainly to producing a digest of research on the chemical composition and leaching characteristics of coal com­bustion by-products by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) that will be published soon. He was a major contributor to a book section on arsenic mobi­lization and bioavailability in soils forthcoming in Advances in Environmental Science and Technology, entitled "Arsenic in the Environment." . Kenneth S. Sajwan is an Associate Professor of Biology and the Coordinator of Environmental Studies in the School of Sciences and Technology at Savannah State College. He received his Ph.D. in Soil Science (Agronomy) from Colorado State University. In addition, he holds a Ph.D. (Post Harvest Technology), M.S. (Agronomy), and B.S. (Agriculture & Animal Husbandry) from India. Prior to joining Savannah State College, Dr. Sajwan worked as an Assistant Research Ecologist in the Biogeochemical Ecology Division of the University of Georgia's Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. Earlier he worked as an ARS Scientist-Agronomy for the Indian Council of Agricultural Research; an Associate Professor-Water Use Management at the University of Roorkee, India; a World Bank Agricultural Consultant to Colombia, South America; and a Postdoctoral Fellow-Soil Chemistry at the University of Kentucky. Dr. Sajwan is also very active in teaching and has taught at the Indian Institute of Technology, University of Roorkee, Colorado State University, and the University of South Carolina. Dr. Sajwan's primary research interests include biogeochemistry of trace metals, soil-plant environmental chemistry, and groundwater quality and chemi­cal equilibria in soils. Currently, Dr. Sajwan is investigating the potential benefits and environmental impact of applications of coal ash and organic waste mixtures to agricultural lands for crop production.

INTRODUCTION -- Chapter 1: Coal Ashes — Industrial Wastes or Beneficial By-Products? R F Keefer -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Results and Discussion -- Bottom Ash and Boiler Slag Applications -- Fly Ash Applications -- Elements Found in Fly Ash, Soils, Plants, and Animals -- Use of Fly Ash for Plant Growth -- Disadvantages -- Advantages -- Enrichment Ratios -- Emphasis in Present Work and Direction of Future Research References -- Chapter 2: An Overview of Electric Power Institute (EPRI) Research Related to Effective Management of Coal Combustion -- Residues -- I.P Murarka, S.V Mattigod, and R.F Keefer -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Characterization of Coal Combustion Solid Residues -- Physical Properties -- Chemical Properties -- Composition of Extracts and Leachates -- Laboratory Experiments -- EPA Regulatory Tests Applied to Coal Combustion -- Residues -- Predictions of Leachate Compositions -- Chemistry and Geochemistry of Residue Disposal -- Laboratory Studies on Geochemical Parameters -- Porewater and Leachate Composition from Field -- Experiments -- Fly Ash Test Cell -- Disposal of FGD Wastes -- Laboratory and Field Studies at Fly Ash Disposal -- Sites -- Development of Computer Models -- Applications to Solid Residue Disposal Systems -- Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS FROM POWER PLANTS -- Chapter 3: Coal-Based Environmental Problems in a Low-Rainfall -- Tropical Region -- M. Agrawal, J. Singh, A. K. Jha, and J. S. Singh -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Study Area -- Location of Study Sites -- Climate -- Geology and Soil -- Vegetation -- Thermal Power Plants -- Ambient Air Quality -- Plant Performance in Relation to Air Quality -- Fly Ash and Trace Elements -- Coal Mine Spoil -- Physicochemical and Biological Properties -- General Floristics -- Plant Community Development -- Community Characteristics -- Shoot Biomass -- Root Biomass -- Effect of Age and Microsites -- Evaluation of Mine Spoil as a Medium for Plant Growth -- Growth Performance of Certain Directly Seeded Plants -- Conclusions and Recommendations -- Acknowledgment -- References -- Chapter 4: Trace Element Concentrations in the Soft Tissue of Transplanted -- Freshwater Mussels Near a Coal-Fired Power Plant -- C. S. Klusek, M. Heit, and S. Hodgkiss -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Experimental -- Study Site -- Sample Transplanting and Collection -- Sample Preparation and Analysis -- Mussels -- Water and Sediment -- Analytical Quality Control -- Data Analysis -- Results and Discussion -- Element Concentrations in Mussels -- Comparison of Metal Concentrations in Transplanted -- Mussels and Lake George Mussels -- Spatial and Temporal Variations in Mussel -- Concentrations -- Group 1 (Elevated) -- Group 2 -- Relation of Mussel Tissue Concentrations to Concentrations in Water and Surface Sediments -- Sediment and Water Concentrations -- Sediment Enrichment Factors -- Relation Between Mussel and Sediment -- Concentrations -- Relation Between Mussel and Water Concentrations Relation of Mussel Tissue Concentration to Coal- -- Combustion Products from Milliken Station -- Trace Elements Released from Milliken Station -- Relation of Metal Concentrations and Distance -- from the Power Plant -- Other Possible Sources of Pollution -- Marinas -- Agricultural Land Use -- Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- TESTS FOR AND MONITORING OF FOSSIL FUEL DISPERSION AND ASH DISPOSAL -- Chapter 5: Strontium and Lead Isotopes as Monitors of Fossil Fuel -- Dispersion -- R. W. Hurst, T. E. Davis, A. A. Elseewi, and A. L. Page -- Abstract -- Introduction -- The Geochemistry of Sr -- Strontium in Mixtures -- Isotopic Fractionation -- Strontium Isotopes as Tracers of Fly Ash -- Lead Isotopic Evolution in the Crust -- Materials and Methods -- Coal-Fired Power Plant -- Coal Tar Site -- Results and Discussion -- Coal-Fired Power Plant -- Criteria for Tracing FFR Dispersion -- On-Site Soil Leachates -- Off-Site Leachates and Brittlebush -- Monitoring Well and Evaporation Pond Waters -- Coal Tar Site -- Lead Concentrations -- Lead Isotopic Composition -- Soil Samples -- Water Samples -- Strontium Concentration and Isotopic Results -- Conclusions -- Coal-Fired Power Plant -- Coal Tar Site -- References -- Chapter 6: Baker Soil Test Applications for Land Reclamation, -- Animal Health, and Food Chain Protection -- D. E. Baker, F. G. Pannebaker, J. P. Senft and J. P. Coetzee -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Theory and Evolution of the BST -- Description of the BST -- Applications of the BST -- Sewage Sludge Treated Soils -- Strip Mine Spoils -- Fly Ash Disposal Areas -- Soils Contaminated by Smelters -- Coal Refuse Disposal Sites -- Experiment No. 1 -- Experiment No. 2 -- Summary and Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- TRANSPORT AND LEACHABILITY OF METALS FROM COAL AND ASH PILES -- Chapter 7: Multicomponent Transport Through Soil Subjected to -- Coal Pile Runoff Under Steady Saturated Flow -- M. A. Anderson, P. M. Bertsch, and L. W. Zelazny -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Materials and Methods -- Study Site -- Soils -- Column Leaching Experiments -- Analytical -- Speciation -- Results and Discussion -- Coal Pile Runoff -- Soils -- Column Leaching Experiments -- pH -- Major Components -- Alkali Metals -- Alkaline Earth Metals -- Transition Metals -- Influence of Flow Rate on Observed Transport -- Solubility Relations -- Simple Modeling of Transport -- Implications for Groundwater Systems -- Summary and Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 8: Leachability of Ni, Cd, Cr, and As from Coal Ash Impoundments of Different Ages on the -- Savannah River Site -- S. S. Sandhu, G. L. Mills, and K. S. Sajwan -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Materials and Methods -- Study Area -- Sampling Sites -- Sample Collection -- Leaching Studies -- Sample Analysis -- Results -- Physical and Chemical Characteristics of the Ash -- Effects of Solution pH -- Leaching with Water -- Leaching with Acid -- Leaching with Base -- Effect of Redox Conditions -- Peroxide Leachate -- Reducing Leachate -- Discussion -- Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- USE OF COAL ASH FOR PLANT GROWTH -- Chapter 9: Extractable and Plant Concentrations of Metals in Amended -- Coal Ash -- A. P. Schwab -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Experimental -- Site Preparation -- Sampling and Analysis -- Results and Discussion -- Properties of the Ash -- Vegetative Yield -- Availability Indices and Plant Uptake -- Nitrogen -- Potassium -- Phosphorus -- Magnesium -- Sodium -- Boron -- Copper and Mo -- Zinc -- Lead and Cd -- Manganese -- Barium, Ni, and Cr -- Arsenic and Se -- Summary and Conclusions -- Acknowledgment -- References -- Chapter 10: Uptake of Chemical Elements by Terrestrial Plants -- Growing on a Coal Fly Ash Landfill -- L. H. Weinstein, M. A. Arthur, R. E. Schneider, P. B. Woodbury J. A. Laurence, A. O. Beers, and G. Rubin -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Materials and Methods -- Results -- Soils -- Forage Crops -- First Cutting (Alfalfa, Clover, Timothy) -- Second Cutting (Alfalfa, Clover) -- Third Cutting (Alfalfa) -- Root Crops -- Early Summer Harvest -- Late Summer Harvest — Gypsum Experiment -- Gypsum Effects -- Sweet Com and Field Com -- Sweet Com -- Field Com -- Indigenous Species -- Bromegrass, Milkweed, and Birdsfoot Trefoil -- Bitterweed and Wild Carrot Grown on -- the Landfill -- Discussion -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Chapter 11: Accumulation of Mo in Wheat and Alfalfa Grown on -- Fly Ash-Amended Acid Mine Spoils -- R. F. Keefer, D. K. Bhumbla, and R. N. Singh -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Literature Review -- Objectives -- Materials and Methods -- Fly Ash and Rock Phosphate -- Mine Spoils, Experimental Design, and Treatments -- Crops Grown, Harvesting Schedule, and Sample -- Preparation -- Plant Sample Analyses -- Soil Sampling and Analyses -- Statistical Analysis -- Results and Discussion -- Molybdenum Concentrations in Alfalfa -- Molybdenum Concentrations in Alfalfa with Cropping -- Molybdenum Concentrations in Wheat -- Molybdenum Reactions in Soil -- pH Reactions in Soils Relative to Mo Availability -- Molybdenum Fixation in Soils -- Molybdenum Concentrations in Mine Spoils -- Molybdenum Toxicity in Animals -- Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- Chapter 12: Elements in Coal and Coal Ash Residues and Their -- Potential for Agricultural Crops -- M. P. Menon, K. S. Sajwan, G. S. Ghuman, J. James, and K. Chandra -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Literature Review -- Essential Elements for Plant Growth -- Vertical and Horizontal Distribution of Elements in -- Ash Residues -- Physical and Chemical Properties -- Experimental Methods -- Materials Used in This Study -- Extraction of Elements from Coal and Coal Residues -- Column Studies to Measure Downward Movement of -- Elements in Soil -- Preparation of Fly Ash-Amended Composts -- Greenhouse Study -- Chemical Analysis -- Results and Discussion -- Physical and Chemical Properties of Coal and Coal Ash -- Vertical Deposition of Elements in Coal Ashes -- Distribution of Elements in Coal and Coal Ashes -- Downward Transport of Elements in Soil -- Analysis of “Homemade” Composts and Fly -- Ash-Amended Composts -- Effect of Fly Ash-Amended Compost on -- Agricultural Crops -- Correlation Studies -- Summary and Conclusions -- Acknowledgments -- References -- Index.