Brown's Boundary Control and Legal Principles

Donald A. Wilson is President of Donald Wilson Consulting, LLC. C.A. “Tony” Nettleman III is President and CEO of Nettleman Land Consultants, Inc. and Director of the Nettleman Institute of Land Surveying Engineering Technology, Inc. Walter G. Robillard is a Retired Surveyor.

Preface xvii

Chapter 1 History and Concept of Boundaries 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Significance of Boundaries 3

1.3 Boundary References 4

1.4 Terminus: The God (or Goddess) of Boundaries 6

1.5 Disputes and Boundaries 7

1.6 Role of the Surveyor in Boundaries 9

1.7 What is Being Created? What is Being Located? 13

1.8 Original Written Title 15

1.9 Rights and Interests in Land are Composed of a Bundle of Rights 16

1.10 Role of the Court 20

1.11 Real and Personal Property 21

1.12 What Constitutes Real Property 22

1.13 Nature of Modern Estates 25

1.14 Taxes on Land and Tax Maps 25

1.15 Easements and Licenses 26

1.16 Servitudes, Restrictions, Covenants, and Conditions 30

1.17 Actions on Boundaries and Easements 31

1.18 One Unique Parcel or Boundary 32

1.19 The Original Boundaries are Sacred 32

1.20 Conclusions 33

Bibliography 34

Notes 34

Chapter 2 How Boundaries are Created 36

2.1 Introduction 36

2.2 Definitions 37

2.3 Classification of Boundaries 40

2.4 Methods of Boundary Creation 41

2.5 Who May Create Boundaries? 45

2.6 Sanctity of the Original Survey 48

2.7 Original Lines Remain Fixed 49

2.8 Distinctions Between the Original Boundary Survey, the Retracement Survey, and the First Survey 49

2.9 Original Technological Methods of Boundary Creation not Relatable to Modern Methods 51

2.10 Original Lines may be Redescribed as a Result of a Retracement 51

2.11 Conclusions 52

Notes 53

Chapter 3 Ownership, Transfer, and Description of Real Property and Accompanying Rights 54

3.1 Concepts of Boundaries, Land Ownership, and Land Descriptions 54

3.2 Overview of Boundaries 56

3.3 Public and Private Lands 59

3.4 Sources of Title 60

3.5 Voluntary Transfer of Real Property 61

3.6 Chain of Title 61

3.7 Torrens Title System 63

3.8 Unwritten Rights or Title to Land 63

3.9 Methods of Voluntary Transfer of Title 64

3.10 Deed or Description 65

3.11 Title or Lien 66

3.12 Deed of Trust 66

3.13 Mortgage 67

3.14 Escrow 67

3.15 Title assurance and Title Insurance 67

3.16 Abstractors 69

3.17 Attorney’s Opinion 69

3.18 General land Descriptions 69

3.19 What is in a Description? 70

3.20 Measurements 71

3.21 Magnetic Directions 75

3.22 Reference Datums 77

3.23 Elements of Land Descriptions 78

3.24 Types of Descriptions 79

3.25 Conclusions 81

Notes 81

Chapter 4 Boundaries, Law, and Related Presumptions 83

4.1 Introduction 83

4.2 Constitutional Law and the Surveyor 84

4.3 Jurisdiction 85

4.4 Federal Jurisdiction 85

4.5 Federal Government, Agency, or Officer as a Party 86

4.6 Sovereign Immunity 87

4.7 United States as a Defendant 87

4.8 Disposing of Federal Lands 87

4.9 Color of Title Act 88

4.10 Public Law 120 88

4.11 Small Tracts Act 88

4.12 Researching the Laws 89

4.13 Court Reports 90

4.14 Legal Research 90

4.15 Judicial Notice 92

4.16 Evidence 93

4.17 Presumptions 94

4.18 Common Presumptions 95

4.19 Survey Systems Present in the United States 97

4.20 Conclusions 100

Bibliography 100

Notes 100

Chapter 5 Creation and Interpretation of Metes and Bounds and other Nonsectionalized Descriptions 102

5.1 Introduction 102

5.2 Methods of Creating Metes and Bounds or Nonsectionalized Descriptions 106

5.3 Metes Descriptions 106

5.4 Bounds Descriptions 109

5.5 Combination Metes and Bounds Descriptions 110

5.6 Strip Descriptions and Stationing 111

5.7 Descriptions by Reference 112

5.8 Aliquot Descriptions 112

5.9 Other Means of Creating Boundaries in Descriptions 114

5.10 Nomenclature in Metes and Bounds Descriptions 116

5.11 Adjoiners 124

5.12 Deed Terms for Curves 124

5.13 Lines and Their Elements 126

5.14 Tax Descriptions and Abbreviated Descriptions 133

5.15 Subdivision Descriptions 135

5.16 Parcels Created by Protraction 137

5.17 Features of Platting Acts 137

5.18 Writing Land Descriptions 138

5.19 Early Surveys 139

5.20 Priority of Calls in Metes and Bounds Surveys 141

5.21 Applying Priority Calls 142

5.22 Conclusions 144

Notes 145

Chapter 6 Creation and Retracement of General Land Office (GLO) Boundaries 146

6.1 Introduction 146

6.2 Original Surveys and Corrective Surveys 149

6.3 Law, Manuals, and Special Instructions 149

6.4 Effect of Manuals on Resurveys 150

6.5 History of The Public Land Survey System 151

6.6 Testing Ground: The Seven Ranges 153

6.7 Act of May 18, 1796—Clarification of 1785 157

6.8 Acts of 1800 159

6.9 1803—The System Explodes 162

6.10 Act of March 26, 1804 163

6.11 Act of February 11, 1805 163

6.12 Land Surveys After 1805 166

6.13 Survey Instructions 167

6.14 State Instructions and Statutes 172

6.15 Instruments Used 180

6.16 Field Notes 181

6.17 Nomenclature for Sections 181

6.18 Meandering 182

6.19 Resurveys and Retracements 183

6.20 Defective Boundaries Encountered in Resurveys 183

6.21 Sectionalized Surveys and Innovations 184

6.22 Irregular Original Government Subdivisions 184

6.23 Townships Other than Regular 185

6.24 Locating GLO Records in State Archives 185

6.25 Summary of the GLO System 187

Notes 190

Chapter 7 Federal and State Nonsectionalized Land Surveys 191

7.1 Introduction 191

7.2 Early New England and Other Colonial-ERA Surveys 195

7.3 Ohio Company of Associates 195

7.4 Donation Tract 196

7.5 Symmes Purchase 197

7.6 Virginia Military District 197

7.7 US Military Tract 198

7.8 Connecticut Western Reserve and Firelands 199

7.9 Moravian Tracts 199

7.10 Florida Keys Survey 199

7.11 Donation Land Claims 200

7.12 Exchange Surveys and Their Status 200

7.13 Prior Land Grants from Foreign Governments 201

7.14 French Grants in the Louisiana Purchase 201

7.15 Mississippi Townships 205

7.16 Soldier’s Additional Homestead 206

7.17 Indian Allotment Surveys 206

7.18 National Forest Homestead Entry 206

7.19 Tennessee Townships 207

7.20 Florida: Forbes Company Purchase Surveys 208

7.21 Georgia Lot System 209

7.22 Land Tenure Systems of Texas 213

7.23 General Comments 214

7.24 Hawaiian Land Laws 214

7.25 Puerto Rican Land Surveys 217

7.26 Federal Mineral Surveys: General Comments 220

7.27 Water and Mineral Right Laws 220

7.28 Land Open to Appropriation of Minerals 221

7.29 Veins, Lodes, or Ledges 221

7.30 Extralateral and Intralimital Rights 222

7.31 Mill Sites 224

7.32 Tunnel Locations 224

7.33 Size of Claims 224

7.34 Discovery 225

7.35 Locations 225

7.36 Possession 226

7.37 Annual Expenditures 226

7.38 Requirements for Patent 227

7.39 United States Mineral Surveyors 227

7.40 Survey of the Claim 227

7.41 Conclusions 228

Recommended Reading 229

Notes 229

Chapter 8 Locating Easements and Reversions 230

8.1 Introduction 230

8.2 Rights Granted 233

8.3 Fee Title or Easement Right 236

8.4 Three Easement Descriptions and Three Boundaries 237

8.5 Ownership of the Bed of Easements 237

8.6 Surveyor’s Responsibility as to Easements 238

8.7 Requirements for Locating Easements 238

8.8 Centerline Presumption 239

8.9 Conveyances with Private Way Boundaries 240

8.10 Use of Easements 241

8.11 Revival of Public Easements 241

8.12 Creation of Easement Boundaries 241

8.13 Dividing Private Street Ownership 244

8.14 Words Used in Centerline Conveyances 245

8.15 Apportioning Reversion Rights 246

8.16 General Principle of Reversion 246

8.17 Reversion Rights of a Lot on a Curved Street 247

8.18 Lots Adjoining Two Subdivision Boundaries 249

8.19 Lots at an Angle Point in a Road 249

8.20 Indeterminate Situations 250

8.21 Exceptions to the Rules of Apportionment 251

8.22 Describing Vacated Streets and Easements 252

8.23 Litigating Easements 254

8.24 Conclusions 254

Notes 254

Chapter 9 Riparian and Littoral Boundaries 256

9.1 Introduction 256

9.2 Ownership of the Seas 2 260

9.3 Ownership of the US Territorial Sea 261

9.4 Ownership of Interior Tidal Waters of the United States 263

9.5 Landward Boundary of Tidal Waters 263

9.6 Ownership of Nontidal Navigable Waters 267

9.7 Landward Boundaries of Nontidal Waters 268

9.8 Significance of Public Land Survey Meander Lines 27 269

9.9 Ownership of Non–Publicly Owned Submerged Lands 270

9.10 Swamp and Overflowed Lands 272

9.11 Navigational Servitude 273

9.12 Public Regulation of Riparian and Littoral Lands 273

9.13 Shoreline Changes and Water Boundaries 274

9.14 Apportionment of Riparian and Littoral Rights 276

9.15 Emergent or Omitted Islands 282

9.16 Water Boundaries Other Than Sea 282

9.17 Major Recognized Areas 283

9.18 Conclusions and Recommendations 283

Notes 283

Chapter 10 Retracing and “resurveying” Sectionalized Lands 286

10.1 Introduction 286

10.2 Areas of Authority 292

10.3 Resurvey or Retracement 293

10.4 Types of Surveys and Resurveys 294

10.5 Court of Proper Jurisdiction 295

10.6 Federal Patents 296

10.7 Intent of the Government 296

10.8 Senior Rights 297

10.9 Following the Footsteps 297

10.10 Lines Marked and Surveyed 298

10.11 Original Corners 298

10.12 Original Field Notes and Plats 299

10.13 Closing Corners 300

10.14 Identification of Corners and Lines 301

10.15 Monuments and Their Identification 302

10.16 Evidence of Corners 303

10.17 Use of Testimony in Boundaries 304

10.18 Common Usage 305

10.19 Using Recorded Information to Locate Original Lines 306

10.20 Proportioning: The Last Resort 306

10.21 Relocating Lost Corners 307

10.22 Proportionate Measure or Proration 309

10.23 Single Proportionate Measurement 309

10.24 Double Proportionate Measurement 310

10.25 Restoration of Lost Standard Corners on Standard Parallels, Correction Lines, and Baselines 312

10.26 Restoration of Lost Township Corners on Principal Meridians and Guide Meridians 312

10.27 Restoration of Lost Township and Section Corners Originally Established with Cross-Ties in Four Directions 313

10.28 Restoration of Lost Corners Along Township Lines 313

10.29 Restoration of Lost Township and Section Corners Where the Line was not Established in One Direction 314

10.30 Restoration of Lost Corners Where the Intersecting Lines have been Established in Only Two Directions 315

10.31 Restoration of Quarter-Section Corners in Regular Sections 316

10.32 Restoration of Quarter-Section Corners Where only Part of A Section was Surveyed Originally 316

10.33 Restoration of a Closing Section Corner on a Standard Parallel 316

10.34 Restoration of a Lost North Quarter Corner in a Closing Section 318

10.35 Restoration of Lost Nonriparian Meander Corners 319

10.36 Restoration of Riparian Meander Lines 319

10.37 Restoration of Nonriparian Meander Lines 320

10.38 Restoration of Irregular Exteriors 321

10.39 Lost Corner Restoration Methods 321

10.40 Resurvey Instructions Issued in 1879 and 1883 321

10.41 Half-Mile Posts in Florida and Alabama 322

Subdivision of Sections 323

10.42 General Comments 323

10.43 Subdivision by Protraction 323

10.44 Establishing the North Quarter Corner of Closing Sections on a Standard Parallel and other Quarter Corners not Originally Set 324

10.45 Establishment of Centerlines and Center Quarter Corners 325

10.46 Establishment of Quarter–Quarter Section Lines and Corners 327

10.47 Fractional Sections Centerline 327

10.48 Senior Right of Lines 328

10.49 Gross Errors and Erroneously Omitted Areas 328

10.50 Relocating Corners from other Townships or From Interior Corners 330

10.51 Procedures for Conducting Retracements 331

10.52 Interpretation of Aliquot Descriptions 332

10.53 According to the Government Measure 334

Differences Between State and Federal Interpretations 334

10.54 Applying State Laws 334

10.55 Topography 335

10.56 Boundaries by Area 336

10.57 Establishing Corners 337

10.58 Sections Created Under State Jurisdiction 337

10.59 Presumptions and Realities for GLO Surveys 338

10.60 Conclusions 341

Notes 341

Chapter 11 Locating Sequential Conveyances 343

11.1 Introduction 343

11.2 Definition of Sequential Conveyances 347

11.3 Simultaneous Conveyances 347

11.4 Possession 348

11.5 Sequential Patents 348

11.6 Importance of Knowledge 348

11.7 Junior and Senior Rights Between Private Parties 349

11.8 Junior and Senior Rights Between Private Parties; Exception 350

11.9 Deeds Must be in Writing and Deemed to be Whole 350

11.10 Direction of the Survey 351

11.11 Terms of the Deed 352

11.12 Call for a Plat 352

11.13 Informative and Controlling Terms 353

Order of Importance of Conflicting Title Elements 354

11.14 General Comments 354

11.15 Senior Rights 355

11.16 Call for an Adjoiner 356

11.17 Written Intentions of the Parties to the Deed 357

11.18 Aids to Interpret the Intent of a Deed 358

11.19 Control of Unwritten Title Lines 359

11.20 Lines Marked and Surveyed 359

11.21 Corner Definitions 361

11.22 Control of Monuments 362

11.23 Control Between Conflicting Monuments 364

11.24 Explanation of the Principles 365

11.25 Importance of the Word “TO” 369

11.26 Dignity of Record Monuments 369

11.27 Control Point of a Monument 369

11.28 Uncalled-For Monuments 370

11.29 Error or Mistake in a Description 371

11.30 Control of Bearing and Distance 371

11.31 Control of Either Bearing or Distance 372

11.32 Distribution of Errors in Several Boundary Lines 375

11.33 Cardinal Directions 376

11.34 Unrestricted General Terms 377

11.35 Direction of Survey 377

11.36 Area or Surface 378

11.37 Point of Beginning 379

11.38 Construed Most Strongly Against Grantor 379

11.39 Errors and Ambiguous Terms 379

11.40 Coordinates 380

11.41 Direct Line Measurement 381

11.42 Treatment of Curves 382

11.43 First Stated Conditions 382

11.44 Written and Character Numbers 383

11.45 Unit Implied 383

11.46 Feet and Inches 383

11.47 General and Particular Provisions 383

Basis of Bearings 384

11.48 Deflection Method Versus Compass Bearings 384

11.49 Sequential Conveyances in Texas 388

11.50 Summary, Interpretation of the Principles, and Conclusion 389

Bibliography 390

Notes 390

Chapter 12 Locating Simultaneously Created Boundaries 393

12.1 Introduction 393

12.2 Defining Subdivisions 397

Subdivision Boundaries and corners 398

12.3 Aliquot Part Subdivision 398

12.4 Controlling Boundaries 398

12.5 Subdivision Macro Boundary Wrongly Monumented 400

12.6 Subdivision Boundaries Incorrectly Described 401

Conflicting Elements in Descriptions 401

12.7 General Comments 401

12.8 Original Method of Creating Lots 401

12.9 Intention of the Parties 402

12.10 Finality of Original Lines 402

12.11 Control of Original Monuments within Subdivision Boundaries 404

12.12 Title Monuments 405

12.13 Control of Monuments Over Plats 405

12.14 Certainty of Monument Identification 406

12.15 Record Description of Monuments 406

12.16 Principles for Presumed Control Between Conflicting Monuments Within Subdivisions 407

12.17 Explaining Principles 407

12.18 Introduction to Proportioning 411

Establishment of Streets 412

12.19 General Comments 412

12.20 Establishment of Streets by Natural Monuments 412

12.21 Establishment of Streets and Alleys By Artificial Monuments and Lines Actually Run at The Time of Making The Plat 413

12.22 Establishment of Streets by Improvements 415

12.23 Establishment of Streets by the Line of a Nearby Street 416

12.24 Establishment of Streets by Plat 417

12.25 Establishment of Streets Where Width is not Given 418

12.26 Establishment of Streets by City Engineers’ Monuments 418

Establishment of Lots within Subdivisions 420

12.27 Effect of Mathematical Error 420

12.28 Excess or Deficiency 421

12.29 Proration: A Rule of Last Resort 421

12.30 Excess OR Deficiency Confined to a Block 422

12.31 Excess OR Deficiency Distribution Within Blocks 422

12.32 Single Proportionate Measure 423

12.33 Single Proportionate Measure on Curves 424

12.34 Distribution of Excess and Deficiency Beyond a Monument 426

12.35 Establishment of Lots Where the End Lot Measurement is not Given 427

12.36 Remnant Principle 427

12.37 Establishment of Lots Where no Lot Measurement is Given 432

12.38 Establishment of Lots with Area only Given 432

12.39 New York Rule for Establishment of Lots 433

12.40 Summary of Proration Rules 436

12.41 Establishment of Lots Adjoining Subdivision Boundaries 437

12.42 Establishment of Lots Adjoining a Subdivision Correctly Established 437

12.43 Establishment of Lots Overlapping the True Subdivision Boundaries 437

12.44 Establishment of Lots not Touching the True Boundary of the Subdivision 438

12.45 Proration of Excess and Deficiency in Blocks Closing on Subdivision Boundaries 439

12.46 Locating Lots from Boundary Lines 440

12.47 Obliterated and Lost Subdivisions 440

Proceedings in Partition 441

12.48 General Comments 441

12.49 Establishment of Lines Determined by Proceedings in Partition 441

12.50 Establishment of Boundaries of Allottees of Wills 442

12.51 Deed Divisions 442

12.52 Comments 442

Notes 443

Chapter 13 Locating Combination Descriptions and Conveyances 445

13.1 Introduction 445

“OF” Descriptions 447

13.2 “OF,” “IN,” and “AT” Descriptions within Subdivisions and Adjoining Streets 447

13.3 “OF” Descriptions within Metes and Bounds Descriptions and Adjoining Streets 449

13.4 Direction of Measurement 452

13.5 Proportional “OF” Conveyance 452

13.6 Exception by One-Half by Area 454

13.7 Indeterminate Proportional Conveyances 455

13.8 Angular Direction of the Dividing Line in “OF” Descriptions 455

13.9 Acreage “OF” Descriptions 458

13.10 Ambiguity 460

Overlaps and Gaps 463

13.11 Calls From Two Directions 463

Establishment of Property Described by Both Metes and Bounds and Subdivision Descriptions 464

13.12 Double Descriptions 464

13.13 New York Double Descriptions 465

13.14 Natural Phenomena and Boundaries 465

13.15 Recognition of Past Events 469

Notes 471

Chapter 14 Role of the Surveyor 472

14.1 Introduction 472

14.2 Function of the Surveyor 474

14.3 Opinions of Fact and Applications of Law 474

14.4 Establishment of Boundaries 476

14.5 Establishment in Louisiana 477

Private Surveys 477

14.6 Responsibility and Authority of the Surveyor 477

14.7 Basis of a Boundary Survey 479

14.8 How Much Research? 479

14.9 Ownership 481

14.10 Encroachments 481

14.11 Searching for Monuments 481

14.12 Possession Marking Original Survey Lines 482

14.13 Evidence 483

14.14 Setting Monuments 483

14.15 Plats 484

14.16 Liability 485

14.17 Conclusion 486

Notes 488

Chapter 15 The Ethics and Moral Responsibilities of Boundary Creation and Retracements 489

15.1 Introduction 489

15.2 The Philosophy of Boundaries 490

15.3 Applying the Principles to Creating and Retracing Boundaries 492

15.4 Final Comments 497

Notes 498

Glossary of Terms 499

Index 525