Future Fixed and Mobile Broadband Internet, Clouds, and IoT/AI

Toni Janevski is a Professor at the Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technologies, Skopje, Macedonia, and Member of ITU’s Group of Capacity Building Initiatives. He has published multiple books, numerous research papers and has tutored and coordinated many ITU international courses through the ITU Academy.

About the Author ... xv

1 Fixed and Mobile Broadband Evolution ... 1
1.1 Evolution of Fixed and Mobile Telecommunications ... 1
1.1.1 Initial Telecommunication Technologies ... 1
1.1.2 Digital Telecommunication World ... 3
1.1.2.1 Circuit Switching ... 3
1.1.2.2 Packet Switching ... 5

1.2 Internet Evolution ... 6
1.2.1 Comparison of Internet and Legacy Telecommunications ... 7
1.2.2 The Broadband Evolution of Open Internet and IP Networks ... 9

1.3 Convergence of Telecom and Internet Worlds ... 14
1.3.1 Protocols Convergence ... 15
1.3.2 Architectural Convergence ... 17
1.3.3 Services Convergence and Digital Market – the Digitalization ... 19

1.4 Legacy, Over-The-Top (OTT), and Critical Services ... 20

1.5 Discussion ... 22

References ... 24

2 Internet Technologies ... 25
2.1 Open Internet Architecture ... 25
2.1.1 Internet Protocol Architecture ... 25
2.1.2 Open Internet Network Architectures ... 26

2.2 Main Internet Technologies ... 27
2.2.1 Internet Protocol (IP): IPv4 and IPv 6 ... 28
2.2.2 Transport Protocols in Internet: TCP and UDP ... 30
2.2.3 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) ... 30
2.2.4 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ... 32
2.2.5 QUIC: UDP-based Multiplexed and Secure Transport ... 34
2.2.6 Domain Name System (DNS) ... 35

2.3 IPv6 Addressing and Implementation ... 36
2.3.1 IPv4 Addressing ... 36
2.3.2 IPv6 Addressing ... 37
2.3.3 IPv4-to-IPv6 Migration and IPv6 Implementation ... 38

2.4 IP Interconnections and IP exchange (IPX) ... 41
2.4.1 IP Interconnection Approaches ... 41
2.4.2 End-to-End IP Communication ... 43

2.5 HTTP 2.0, HTTP 3.0, and Web Technology ... 44
2.5.1 HTTP Fundamentals ... 45
2.5.2 Http 2.0 ... 46
2.5.3 Http 3.0 ... 47
2.5.4 Web 3.0 and Metaverse ... 48

2.6 QoS in Internet/IP Networks ... 50
2.6.1 Legacy QoS Approaches in IP Networks ... 51
2.6.2 End-to-End IP QoS Framework ... 52
2.6.3 Framework for Monitoring End-to-End QoS of IP Network Services ... 53

2.7 Cybersecurity and Privacy ... 55
2.7.1 Cybersecurity Fundamentals ... 56
2.7.2 IP Security Fundamental Technologies ... 58
2.7.3 Online Privacy Aspects ... 59

2.8 Future Internet Development Toward 2030 and Beyond ... 61
2.8.1 Future Broadband Internet Through Continuous Evolution ... 62

2.9 Governance of Broadband Internet ... 64
2.9.1 Convergence Between Broadband IP Infrastructure and Other Sectors ... 65
2.9.2 Discussion About the Future of the Broadband Internet Governance ... 66

References ... 67

3 Future Terrestrial and Satellite Broadband ... 69
3.1 Future Metallic Broadband ... 69
3.1.1 Legacy DSL Technologies for Fixed Broadband Access ... 69
3.1.2 Future Multi-gigabit Fast Access to Subscriber Terminals ... 70

3.2 Future Cable Broadband ... 72
3.2.1 DOCSIS 4.0 ... 73
3.2.2 Discussion on Future of Copper Access Technologies ... 75

3.3 Future FTTH/FTTx Optical Access ... 75
3.3.1 Architectures of Optical Networks for Fixed Broadband Access ... 77
3.3.2 Next Generation High Speed PONs ... 78

3.4 Carrier-grade Ethernet for Telecoms ... 79
3.4.1 The Rise of Ethernet from Local to Carrier Technology ... 79
3.4.2 Carrier Ethernet Characteristics ... 80
3.4.3 QoS for Carrier Ethernet ... 81

3.5 Software Defined – Wide Area Network (SD-WAN) ... 83
3.5.1 IP/MPLS for Telecom Transport Networks ... 83
3.5.2 Software-Defined WAN for Telecom Networks ... 85

3.6 Optical Transport Networks ... 88
3.6.1 Optical Transport Network ... 88

3.7 Submarine Cable Transport Networks ... 90
3.7.1 Deployment of Submarine Cable Systems ... 91
3.7.2 Business and Regulatory Aspects for Submarine Cables ... 93

3.8 Satellite Broadband ... 94
3.8.1 Fixed-Satellite Service (FSS) ... 95
3.8.2 FSS Technical Characteristics ... 96
3.8.2.1 Example for Global Broadband Internet Access Via FSS Systems ... 97
3.8.3 Earth Stations in Motion (ESIM) ... 98
3.8.4 Non-GSO vs. GSO Satellite Service ... 99
3.8.5 Regulatory and Business Aspects of Satellite Broadband ... 101

3.9 Business and Regulatory Aspects of Fixed Broadband ... 102
3.9.1 Business Aspects of Future Broadband Internet ... 102
3.9.2 Impact of Broadband on Economy ... 105
3.9.3 Infrastructure Sharing ... 106

References ... 107

4 Mobile Broadband ... 109
4.1 Mobile Broadband Evolution (LTE/LTE Advanced Pro) ... 111
4.1.1 E-UTRAN: 4G Radio Access Network from 3GPP ... 112
4.1.2 Evolved Packet Core (EPC) ... 114
4.1.3 LTE Advanced Pro ... 116

4.2 5G New Radio ... 117
4.2.1 5G New Radio (NR) Characteristics ... 118
4.2.2 5G Radio Access Network (5G RAN) Architectures ... 121

4.3 SDN, NFV, and Network Slicing in 5G ... 121
4.3.1 Network Slicing in IMT- 2020 ... 123

4.4 5G Next Generation Core ... 124
4.4.1 5G Core Network Functions ... 125
4.4.2 Software Based Architecture (SBA) in 5G Network ... 126

4.5 5G Quality of Service (QoS) ... 128
4.5.1 5G QoS Indicators (5QIs) ... 128
4.5.2 QoS Functions in 5G Network ... 132
4.5.3 5G QoE Analysis with Artificial Intelligence (AI) Assistance ... 133

4.6 Spectrum Management for International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT) ... 135
4.6.1 5G Frequency Bands ... 136
4.6.2 Analysis of 5G Frequency Carriers in FR1 and FR 2 ... 139
4.6.3 Carrier Aggregation and Bandwidth Adaptation ... 142
4.6.4 Discussion on 5G Capacity and User Traffic Versus 5G Spectrum ... 144

4.7 Mobile Access in Unlicensed Bands ... 147
4.7.1 4G LTE and 5G NR in Unlicensed Bands ... 148
4.7.2 Access Traffic Steering, Switching, and Splitting for 5G-WLAN ... 149
4.7.3 5G Mobile Technologies in 6 GHz Band ... 151

4.8 Business and Regulatory Aspects of Mobile Broadband ... 152

References ... 154

5 Future Mobile and Wireless Broadband ... 155
5.1 5G-Advanced ... 155
5.1.1 Main Characteristics of 5G-Advanced ... 156
5.1.2 Time Synchronization and Time-Sensitive Communication in 5G/5G-Advanced ... 158
5.1.3 Discussion on 5G-Advanced ... 159

5.2 Integrated Access and Backhaul (IAB) ... 160
5.2.1 IAB Architecture ... 160
5.2.2 Spectrum Considerations for Implementation of IAB ... 162

5.3 Future WLAN: Wi-Fi 6 (IEEE 802.11ax) and Wi-Fi 7 (IEEE 802.11be) ... 163
5.3.1 IEEE 802.11 Standards for Wireless LAN ... 164
5.3.2 Wi-Fi 6 – Next Generation Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11ax) ... 165
5.3.3 Wi-Fi 7 – Extremely High Throughput Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11be) ... 167

5.4 5G – WLAN Interworking ... 169
5.4.1 Untrusted WLAN Access in 5G Network ... 169
5.4.2 Trusted WLAN Access in 5G and Wireline Access ... 171
5.4.3 Discussion on 5G and WLAN ... 172

5.5 5G Non-Terrestrial Networks (M2M/IoT Over Satellite) ... 172
5.5.1 5G NTN Architectures ... 173
5.5.2 Mobility and Handovers in NTN ... 176
5.5.3 Spectrum for NTN in 5G-Advanced ... 177
5.5.4 M2M/IoT Over Satellite ... 178

5.6 Fixed-Wireless Access (FWA) ... 179
5.6.1 5G FWA Architecture and Spectrum ... 180
5.6.2 5G FWA Services ... 181

5.7 5G-Advanced Non-Public (Private) Networks ... 182
5.7.1 Standalone Non-Public Network (SNPN) ... 182
5.7.2 Public Network Integrated Non-Public Network (PNI-NPN) ... 183

5.8 Future Mobile Broadband: IMT-2030 and Beyond ... 185
5.8.1 IMT-2030 Framework and Usage Scenarios ... 186
5.8.2 IMT-2030/6G Radio Interface and Spectrum ... 187

5.9 Business and Regulatory Aspects of Future Mobile and Wireless Broadband ... 190

References ... 191

6 Internet of Things (IoT), Big Data, and Artificial Intelligence ... 193
6.1 Internet of Things (IoT) Framework ... 193
6.1.1 Massive IoT and Critical IoT Technologies ... 194
6.1.2 Security and Trust in IoT ... 197

6.2 Mobile Internet of Things (e.g., NB-IoT) ... 198
6.2.1 Cellular IoT in 4G ... 199
6.2.2 Cellular IoT in 5G ... 200

6.3 Big Data Architectures and Networking ... 202
6.3.1 Big Data Ecosystem ... 203
6.3.2 Big Data Driven Networking (bDDN) ... 204
6.3.3 Big Data Use in the Telecom Sector ... 205

6.4 ITU’s Framework for Machine Learning (ML) ... 206
6.4.1 Definition and Classification of Machine Learning in Internet and Telecoms ... 207
6.4.1.1 Naive Bayes ML Algorithm in Internet and Telecoms ... 208
6.4.1.2 K-Means Clustering ML Algorithm ... 208
6.4.1.3 Apriori Algorithm ... 209
6.4.1.4 Regression ML Algorithms ... 209
6.4.1.5 Random Forest ML Algorithm ... 210
6.4.2 Framework for Machine Learning (ML) by ITU ... 210
6.4.3 Machine Learning Marketplace ... 211
6.4.4 ITU’s Network Intelligence Levels ... 212

6.5 AI (Artificial Intelligence)/ML (Machine Learning) for 5G ... 214
6.5.1 AI/ML Model Transfer in 5G System ... 214
6.5.2 AI/ML Use Cases in 5G/5G-Advanced ... 217
6.5.2.1 Use Cases of AI/ML for QoS, QoE and Energy Saving in 5G and Beyond ... 217
6.5.2.2 AI/ML for Network Slicing in 5G/IMT-2020 and Beyond ... 218
6.5.2.3 AI/ML for Business Support Systems (BSS) in 5G and Beyond ... 219
6.5.3 Discussion ... 220

6.6 Future AI-based Network Service Provisioning ... 220
6.6.1 Intent-based Networks ... 221
6.6.2 Zero-touch Networks ... 223
6.6.3 Discussion ... 224

6.7 Blockchain for IoT Data Processing and Management ... 225
6.7.1 Blockchain Definition and Use Cases in Telecom World ... 225
6.7.2 Blockchain for IoT Services ... 226

6.8 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) for Quantum Internet/IP ... 228
6.8.1 Qubit for Quantum Communication ... 228
6.8.2 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) Technology ... 229
6.8.3 QKD Application in Telecom Networks ... 231

6.9 Business and Regulatory/Governance Aspects of IoT, Big Data, and AI ... 231
6.9.1 IoT, Big Data, and AI – Opportunities and Challenges ... 232
6.9.2 AI Governance ... 232

References ... 234

7 Cloud Computing for Telecoms and OTTs ... 237
7.1 Cloud Computing Architectures ... 237

7.2 Cloud Ecosystem ... 239
7.2.1 Cloud Deployment Models ... 241

7.3 Cloud Service Models ... 241
7.3.1 Machine Learning as a Service (MLaaS) ... 243
7.3.2 Blockchain as a Service (BaaS) ... 244

7.4 Cloud-native and Microservices for OTT Providers and Telecoms ... 245
7.4.1 Cloud-native for Telecoms and OTTs ... 246
7.4.2 Cloud-native in 5G Mobile Networks ... 247
7.4.3 Cloud-native IoT ... 248
7.4.4 Discussion on Cloud-native ... 249

7.5 Edge Computing ... 249
7.5.1 5G Core and Edge Computing ... 250
7.5.2 Telecom Edge Clouds ... 251

7.6 Future OTT Cloud Services ... 253

7.7 Future Telecom Cloud Services ... 256
7.7.1 Mobile Cloud Computing ... 256
7.7.2 Future Telecom Edge Clouds Federation ... 258

7.8 Business Aspects and Regulation of Cloud Computing (Including Security and Privacy) ... 260
7.8.1 Business Aspects of Cloud Computing ... 260
7.8.2 Regulation Aspects of Cloud Computing ... 263

References ... 265

8 Future Fixed and Mobile Services ... 267
8.1 Future Telecom and OTT Voice Services ... 267
8.1.1 Voice Over NR (VoNR) in 5G ... 268
8.1.2 Discussion ... 270

8.2 Future TV/IPTV, Video, and XR/AR/VR Services ... 271
8.2.1 Scope of TV/IPTV Services ... 271
8.2.2 Future 5G and Beyond Broadcast and Multicast Services ... 272
8.2.2.1 Delivery Methods of 5G Multicast Broadcast Services (5G MBS) ... 273
8.2.3 eXtended Reality (XR) Services in 5G and Beyond Mobile Networks ... 275
8.2.3.1 Different Realities of VR, AR, MR, and XR ... 275
8.2.3.2 XR Architecture ... 276
8.2.3.3 The Future of XR Services ... 278

8.3 Telecom and OTT Massive IoT Services ... 279
8.3.1 Massive IoT Ecosystem and Interoperability ... 280
8.3.2 OTT Massive IoT Services ... 282

8.4 Future Critical IoT/AI Services ... 284
8.4.1 5G URLLC Services ... 284
8.4.2 Industrial IoT ... 287
8.4.3 Smart Cities ... 288
8.4.4 Vehicle to Everything – V2X ... 290
8.4.4.1 V2X Architecture in 5G ... 291

8.5 Future OTT Services ... 293
8.5.1 Future Web ... 293
8.5.2 Cloud Gaming ... 295
8.5.3 Future of the Social Media – Metaverse ... 295

8.6 Open Internet vs. QoS, QoE, and Network Neutrality ... 296
8.6.1 Regulatory Aspects of Network Neutrality ... 297
8.6.2 QoS/QoE vs. Network Neutrality vs. Traffic Management ... 298
8.6.3 Future Services vs. Network Neutrality ... 300

8.7 Future Digital Economy and Markets ... 301
8.7.1 Digital Transformation ... 302
8.7.2 Business Aspects for Future Telecom and OTT Services ... 304

8.8 Regulatory Challenges for Future Telecom and OTT Services ... 306

References ... 307

9 Conclusions ... 309

References ... 313

Index 315