Advances in Novel Formulations for Drug Delivery

Raj K. Keservani, MPharm, is an associate professor in the Faculty of B. Pharmacy, CSM Group of Institutions, Prayagraj, India. He has more than 12 years of academic (teaching) experience from various institutes in India in pharmaceutical education. He has published more than 30 peer-reviewed papers in the field of pharmaceutical sciences in national and international journals, 1 patent, 43 book chapters, three co-authored books, and 19 edited books. His research interests include nutraceutical and functional foods, novel drug delivery systems (NDDS), transdermal drug delivery/drug delivery, health science, cancer biology, and neurobiology. Rajesh Kumar Kesharwani, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Computer Application, Nehru Gram Bharati (Deemed to be University), Prayagraj, India. He has more than 11 years of research and 9 years of teaching experience in various institutes in India. He has authored more than 55 peer-reviewed articles, 24 book chapters, and 15 edited books. His research fields of interest are medical informatics, protein structure and function prediction, computer-aided drug designing, structural biology, drug delivery, cancer biology, nano-biotechnology, and biomedical sciences. Anil K. Sharma, M.Pharm., PhD, is an assistant professor (Pharmaceutics) at the School of Medical and Allied Sciences, GD Goenka University, Gurugram, India. He has experience of more than 13 years in academics. He has published 30 peer-reviewed papers in the field of pharmaceutical sciences in nationally and internationally reputed journals as well as 16 book chapters and 15 edited books. His research interests encompass nutraceutical and functional foods, novel drug delivery systems (NDDS), drug delivery, nanotechnology, health science/life science, and biology/cancer biology/neurobiology.

Preface xxiii

Part I: Novel Drug Carriers and Therapeutics 1

1 Nanoarchitectured Materials: Their Applications and Present Scenarios in Drug Delivery 3
Moreshwar P. Patil and Lalita S. Nemade

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Liposomes 4

1.3 Nanoparticles 8

1.3.1 Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery 9

1.4 Nanoemulsions 10

1.4.1 Advantages and Shortcomings of Nanoemulsions 10

1.4.2 Application of Nanoemulsion in Drug Delivery 10

1.5 Dendrimers 11

1.5.1 Synthesis of Dendrimers 12

1.5.2 Advantages of Dendrimers 12

1.5.3 Applications of Dendrimers in Drug Delivery 12

1.6 Aquasomes 15

1.6.1 Properties of Aquasomes 15

1.6.2 Application of Aquasomes in Drug Delivery 16

1.7 Nanogel 16

1.7.1 Properties of Nanogels 17

1.7.2 Nanogels in Drug Delivery 17

1.8 Quantum Dots 18

1.8.1 Applications of Quantum Dots in Drug Delivery 19

1.9 Carbon Nanotubes 19

1.9.1 Features of Carbon Nanotubes 19

1.9.2 Carbon Nanotubes in Drug Delivery 20

References 20

2 Nanopharmaceuticals for Drug Delivery 29
Swapnali Ashish Patil, Akshadha Atul Bakliwal, Vijay Sharad Chudiwal and Swati Gokul Talele

2.1 Introduction 29

2.2 What Are Nanopharmaceuticals and What Do They Do? 30

2.3 Nanopharmaceuticals Importance 30

2.4 Nanotechnology 30

2.5 Pharmaceutical Companies and Nanotechnology 31

2.6 Applications and Advantages of Nanopharmaceuticals as Drug Carriers 32

2.7 Characteristics of Nanoparticles in Nanopharmaceuticals 32

2.7.1 Particle Size 32

2.7.2 Surface Properties of Nanoparticles 33

2.7.3 Drug Loading 33

2.7.4 Drug Release 34

2.8 Targeted Drug Delivery 34

2.9 Types of Nanoparticles 34

2.10 Nanoparticle Preparation Methods 35

2.11 Evaluation of Nanoparticles 35

2.12 Efficiency of Drug Entrapment 37

2.13 Particle Shape 37

2.14 Size of the Particles 37

2.15 Zeta Potential 37

2.16 Rise of Nanopharmaceuticals 38

2.17 Nanopharmaceuticals Approval Regulations (FDA Rules & Regulations) 39

2.18 Conclusions and Prospects for the Future 40

References 41

3 Applications and Prospects of Nanopharmaceuticals Delivery 45
Hemant K. S. Yadav, Fejer Al mohammedawi and Rawan J. I. Abujarad

3.1 Introduction 45

3.2 Nanopharmaceuticals 46

3.3 Development of Nanopharmaceuticals 46

3.3.1 From Lab to the Marketplace 46

3.3.2 Techniques 47

3.3.3 Cost 47

3.3.4 Ethics 48

3.3.5 Nanopharmaceuticals Approval Regulations (FDA Rules & Regulations) 48

3.4 Clinical Applications of Nanotechnology 49

3.4.1 Diagnostic Applications 49

3.4.1.1 Detection 50

3.4.1.2 Protein Chips 50

3.4.1.3 Individual Target Probes 50

3.4.1.4 Nanotechnology as a Tool in Imaging 51

3.4.1.5 Sparse Cell Detection 51

3.4.2 Therapeutic Applications 51

3.4.2.1 Surfaces 51

3.4.2.2 Gene Delivery 51

3.4.2.3 Drug Delivery 52

3.4.2.4 Liposomes 52

3.4.2.5 Nanotechnology in Orthopedic Applications 52

3.4.2.6 Nanotechnology in Cardiac Therapy 53

3.4.2.7 Nanotechnology in Dental Care 53

3.4.2.8 Biomolecular Engineering 53

3.4.2.9 Biopharmaceuticals 53

3.5 Nanopharmaceuticals Delivery—Recent Applications 54

3.5.1 Nanoparticulate Systems for Vaccine 54

3.5.1.1 Polyanhydride-Based NPs 54

3.5.1.2 Biodegradable Synthetic PLGA NPs 54

3.5.1.3 Liposome-Based NPs 55

3.5.1.4 Polysaccharide-Based NPs 55

3.5.2 Chemotherapy 55

3.5.2.1 Increasing the Concentration of Chemotherapeutic Agents in Tumor Tissue 56

3.5.3 Drug/Gene Delivery 57

3.5.3.1 Nanoparticles Used in Drug Delivery System 58

3.5.3.2 Cellulose 59

3.6 Nanotechnology in Neurodegenerative Disorders Treatment 59

3.7 Future Perspective 59

3.8 Issues with Current Nanopharmaceutical Concepts 60

3.8.1 Large-Scale Manufacturing 60

3.8.2 Biological Challenges 62

3.8.3 Intellectual Property (IP) 62

3.8.4 Biocompatibility and Safety 63

3.8.5 Government Regulations 63

3.9 Conclusion 64

References 64

4 Nanomedicine Regulation and Future Prospects 67
md Anwar Nawaz R., Darul Raiyaan G. I., Sivakumar K. and Kantha D. Arunachalam

4.1 Introduction 67

4.2 Importance of Regulation of Nanomedicine 68

4.3 Regulatory Challenges Faced by Nanomaterial in Medicine 68

4.3.1 Performing Various Functions 69

4.3.2 Nanomedicine Classification Issues 69

4.3.3 Variation in Size of the Particle 69

4.3.4 Manufacturing Process 69

4.3.5 Difficulties to Create CQA 70

4.3.6 Nanotoxicology and Cellular Response 70

4.3.7 Administering Right Doses 71

4.3.8 Pharmacokinetics 71

4.3.9 Developing Guidelines 71

4.4 Nanomedicine Future Aspects 71

4.5 Challenges that Threaten the Future of Nanomedicine 72

4.5.1 Financial Crisis 72

4.5.2 Lack of Confidence 72

4.5.3 Potential Dangers 72

4.5.4 Unsuccessful Patenting 73

4.5.5 Breakdowns in the Pharmaceuticals and Financial Markets 73

4.5.6 Limited Regulation 74

4.6 Future Prospects for Nanomedicine 74

4.6.1 Emerging Nanomaterials 75

4.6.2 Personalized Nanomedicine 75

4.6.3 Nanorobots and Nanodevices 75

4.6.4 Orthopedic Augmentations and Cytocompatibility 76

4.6.5 Cardiology and Nanotechnology 76

4.6.6 Cancer and Nanotechnology 77

4.6.7 Napt 77

4.6.8 Gene, Protein, Lab-on-a-Chip Devices 78

4.6.9 Polymeric Nanoparticles in Medicine 78

References 79

5 Nanotechnology Application in Drug Delivery for Medicinal Plants 81
Bui Thanh Tung, Duong Van Thanh and Nguyen Phuong Thanh

5.1 Introduction 81

5.1.1 Nanodrug Delivery Systems (NDDS) 81

5.2 Nanoherbals 83

5.2.1 Cucuma longa (Cucurmin) 83

5.2.2 Gingko biloba 84

5.2.3 Artemisia 85

5.2.4 Silybum marianum—Silymarin 85

5.2.5 Salvia miltiorrhiza (Danshen) 88

5.2.6 Glycyrrhiza glabra (L.) 88

5.2.7 Camellia sinensis (Green tea) 88

5.2.8 Camptotheca acuminata 91

5.2.9 Leea indica 91

5.2.10 Ziziphus mauritiana (Malay apple) 91

5.2.11 Cuscuta chinensis 91

5.3 Conclusion 92

References 92

6 Nanosystems Trends in Nutraceutical Delivery 97
Aristote Buya

6.1 Introduction 97

6.2 Classification of Nutraceuticals 98

6.3 Biopharmaceutical Issues Associated with Nutraceuticals 101

6.4 Nanosystems for Delivery of Nutraceuticals 101

6.4.1 Nanoemulsions 101

6.4.2 Self-Emulsifying Systems 105

6.4.3 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers 105

6.4.4 Liposomes 106

6.4.5 Polymeric Nanoparticles 107

6.4.6 Inorganic Nanoparticles 107

6.5 Challenges 108

6.6 Market Potential 110

6.7 Conclusion and Perspective 111

References 111

7 Nanoencapsulated Systems for Delivery of Phytopharmaceuticals 127
Jacqueline Renovato-Núñez, Luis Enrique Cobos-Puc, Ezequiel Viveros-Valdez, Anna Iliná, Elda Patricia Segura-Ceniceros, Raúl Rodríguez-Herrera and Sonia Yesenia Silva-Belmares

7.1 Introduction 127

7.1.1 Nanoencapsulation Techniques in Phytopharmaceuticals 128

7.1.1.1 Physical-Chemical Techniques 129

7.1.1.2 Chemicals Techniques 130

7.1.1.3 Mechanical Techniques 131

7.1.2 Characterization of Nanoencapsulates 132

7.1.2.1 Morphological Characterization 132

7.1.2.2 Physicochemical Characterization 134

7.1.3 Nanoencapsulated Systems for Free Delivery of Phytopharmaceuticals 137

7.1.4 Studies to Evaluate Phytopharmaceuticals Nanoencapsulates 141

7.2 Conclusions 144

References 145

8 Topical Drug Delivery Using Liposomes and Liquid Crystalline Phases for Skin Cancer Therapy 153
Karina Alexandre Barros Nogueira, Jéssica Roberta Pereira Martins, Thayane Soares Lima, Jose Willams Bandeira Alves Junior, Alanna Letícia do Carmo Aquino, Lorena Maria Ferreira de Lima, Josimar O. Eloy and Raquel Petrilli

8.1 Introduction 153

8.2 Liposomes for Topical Application 156

8.2.1 Development of Liposomal Nanoparticles 156

8.3 Liquid Crystals and Liquid Crystalline Nanodispersions for Topical Application 162

8.3.1 Characterization Techniques 164

8.4 Physical Methods Applied to Nanoparticles Delivery 165

8.4.1 Sonophoresis 167

8.4.2 Microneedles 168

8.5 Conclusions and Perspectives 169

Acknowledgements 169

References 169

9 Vesicular Drug Delivery in Arthritis Treatment 177
Nilesh Gorde, Sandeep O. Waghulde, Ajay Kharche and Mohan Kale

9.1 Introduction 177

9.2 Skin Penetration Pathways 178

9.2.1 Intercellular Pathway 179

9.2.2 Transcellular Pathway 179

9.2.3 Appendgeal Pathway 179

9.3 Principles of Drug Permeation Through Skin 180

9.4 Problems Associated with Conventional Dosage Forms 180

9.5 Novel Treatment Strategies for Arthritis 182

9.5.1 Traditional Liposomes as Skin Drug Delivery Systems 183

9.5.2 Transferosomes (Ultradeformable Liposomes) as Skin Drug Delivery Systems 183

9.5.3 Ethosomes as Skin Drug Delivery Systems 184

9.5.4 Niosomes as Skin Drug Delivery Systems 185

9.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 187

References 187

10 Perspectives of Novel Drug Delivery in Mycoses 197
D. Maheswary, Kakithakara Vajravelu Leela and Sujith Ravi

10.1 Introduction 197

10.2 Role of Conventional Drugs in Antifungal Therapy 198

10.3 Mechanism of Action of Conventional Antifungals 198

10.4 Summary of Nanoparticles and Their Role in Antifungal Therapy 199

10.4.1 Lipid Nanoparticles 199

10.4.2 Liposome 200

10.4.3 Transfersomes 200

10.4.4 Transethosomes 200

10.4.5 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN) 200

10.4.6 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC) 200

10.4.7 Polymer Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticles (PLN) 200

10.4.8 Polymeric Nanoparticles 201

10.4.9 Microsponge and Nanosponge Systems 201

10.4.10 Polymeric Micelles 201

10.4.11 Polymersomes 201

10.4.12 Dendrimers 202

10.4.13 Metallic Nanoparticles 202

10.5 Other Drug Delivery Systems 202

10.5.1 Niosomes 202

10.5.2 Spanlastics 202

10.5.3 Microemulsions and Nanoemulsions 202

10.5.4 Silicon Dioxide Nanoparticles 203

10.6 Conclusion 203

References 203

11 Nano-Based Drug Delivery in Eliminating Tuberculosis 207
Anusha Gopinathan, Shweta Sagar Naik, Leela K.V. and Sujith Ravi

11.1 Introduction 208

11.1.1 Latent and Active Tuberculosis 208

11.1.2 Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB) 209

11.1.3 Extensively Drug-Resistant TB 209

11.2 Antitubercular Therapy 209

11.3 Therapies Based on Nanotechnology 211

11.3.1 Nanoparticles for Anti-TB Therapy 211

11.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nanoparticles 211

11.3.3 Types of Nanoparticles and Their Characteristics 212

11.3.3.1 TB Dendrimers 212

11.3.3.2 Cyclodextrins 213

11.3.3.3 Polymeric Micelles 213

11.3.3.4 Liposomes 213

11.3.3.5 Nanoemulsions 214

11.3.3.6 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles 214

11.3.3.7 Niosomes 214

11.3.3.8 Polymeric Nanoparticles 214

11.4 Routes of Administration of Nanoparticles 215

11.4.1 Oral Administration of Nanoparticles 215

11.4.2 Inhalational Administration of Nanoparticles 215

11.4.3 Intravenous Administration of Nanoparticles 215

11.4.4 Other Routes of Administration 216

11.5 Conclusion 216

References 216

12 Promising Approaches in Drug Delivery Against Resistant Bacteria 219
Shweta Sagar Naik, Anusha G., KakithakaraVajravelu Leela and Sujith Ravi

12.1 Introduction 219

12.2 Drug Delivery Systems 220

12.2.1 Microneedles 220

12.2.2 Nanoparticles 221

12.2.2.1 Inorganic Nanoparticles 222

12.2.2.2 Polymer-Based Nanomedicines 222

12.2.3 Lipid-Based Nanoformulations 223

12.2.4 Stimuli-Responsive Nanocarriers 224

12.2.4.1 Endogenous Stimuli 224

12.2.4.2 Exogeneous Stimuli 225

12.2.5 Nanogels 226

12.2.6 Nanofibers 226

12.2.7 Biomedical Implants 226

12.2.8 Wound Dressing 227

12.3 Biofilm Disruption 227

12.4 Conclusion 227

References 228

13 Emulgels: A Novel Approach for Enhanced Topical Drug Delivery Systems 231
Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Shradhanjali Singh, Amit Kumar Singh, Anil Kumar Singh and Divya Rani Sharma

13.1 Introduction 231

13.2 Approaches Used for Topical Drug Delivery 232

13.3 Factors Affecting Topical Absorption of Drug 233

13.4 Drug Delivery Across the Skin 233

13.5 Emulgels 234

13.5.1 Types of Emulgels 234

13.5.2 Advantages of Emulgel 235

13.5.3 Rationale of Emulgel as a Topical Drug Delivery System 236

13.5.4 Formulation Considerations 237

13.5.5 Excipients Used in the Formulation of Emulgel 238

13.5.5.1 Vehicle 238

13.5.5.2 Emulsifying Agents 238

13.5.5.3 Gelling Agent 242

13.5.5.4 Penetration Enhancers 244

13.5.5.5 Preservatives 245

13.5.5.6 Antioxidants 245

13.5.5.7 Humectant 246

13.5.6 Formulation Methods 246

13.5.7 Routes of Administration for Emulgel Formulation 248

13.5.8 Evaluation of Emulgels 248

13.5.8.1 Physical Appearance 252

13.5.8.2 Spreading Coefficient 252

13.5.8.3 Rheological Studies 252

13.5.8.4 Globule Size and its Distribution in Emulgel 252

13.5.8.5 Swelling Index 252

13.5.8.6 Extrudability Study of Topical Emulgel (Tube Test) 253

13.5.8.7 Skin Irritation Test (Patch Test) 253

13.5.8.8 Drug Content Determination 253

13.5.8.9 In Vitro Release/Permeation Studies 253

13.5.8.10 Ex Vivo Bioadhesive Strength Measurement of Topical Emulgel (Mice Shaven Skin) 254

13.5.8.11 Microbiological Assay 254

13.5.8.12 Drug Release Kinetic Study 254

13.5.8.13 Stability Studies 255

13.5.9 Marketed Preparations 255

13.5.10 Future Prospective of Emulgel as Topical Drug Delivery 256

13.5.11 Therapeutic Profile of Emulgel 258

13.6 Conclusions 258

References 258

14 Electrospun Nanofibers in Drug Delivery 263
Sathish Kumar Karuppannan, Saravannan Mani, Jayandra Bushion, Mohammed Junaid Hussain Dowlath and Kantha Deivi Arunachalam

14.1 Introduction 263

14.2 Electrospinning Setup 264

14.3 Polymers Used to Produce Electrospun Nanofibers 264

14.4 Drug Release 265

14.5 Matrix Type NFs 266

14.5.1 Monolithic 266

14.5.2 Blended NFs 266

14.6 Core-Shell Nanofibers 266

14.6.1 Multimatrix Core-Shell NFs 267

14.6.2 Reservoir Type Core-Shell NFs 267

14.7 Electrospun Nanofiber for Drug Delivery Applications 267

14.7.1 Nucleic Acid Delivery Using NFs 267

14.7.2 Antibiotics Delivery Using NFs 268

14.7.3 Vaginal Drug Delivery Using NFs 269

14.7.4 Ocular Drug Delivery Using NFs 269

14.7.5 Other Drug Delivery Using NFs 270

14.8 Conclusion 271

References 272

Part II: Drug Carriers in Drug Delivery 279

15 Role of Nanotechnology-Based Materials in Drug Delivery 281
Manasa R. and Mahesh Shivananjappa

15.1 Introduction 281

15.2 Nano-Based Drug Delivery Systems 282

15.3 Types of Nanoparticles 282

15.3.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles (PNPs) 282

15.3.2 Dendrimers 284

15.3.3 Polymeric Micelles 286

15.3.4 Liposomes 288

15.3.5 Quantum Dots (QDs) 290

15.3.6 Nanocrystals 291

15.3.7 Gold Nanoparticles 291

15.3.8 Carbon Nanoparticles 294

15.3.8.1 CNTs 294

15.3.8.2 CNH 295

15.3.8.3 Fullerenes 295

15.3.9 Magnetic Nanoparticles (MNPs) 296

15.4 Advantages of Nanoparticles 298

15.5 Toxicity of Nanoparticles 299

15.6 Conclusion 299

References 299

16 Nanomedicine Drug Delivery System 309
Akshada Atul Bakliwal, Swapnali Ashish Patil, Vijay Sharad Chudiwal, Swati Gokul Talele, Gokul Shravan Talele and Anil Govindrao Jadhav

16.1 Introduction 309

16.2 Background 312

16.3 Five Overlapping Subthemes of Nanomedicine 312

16.4 How Nanomedicine Work? 313

16.5 Nanomedicine for Screening of Individuals with Serious Diseases 313

16.6 Objectives of Nanomedicine 313

16.7 Advantages of Nanomedicine 314

16.8 Physiological Principles for Nanomedicines 315

16.9 Nanotoxicology from Nanomedicines 315

16.9.1 Health and Safety Issues 316

16.9.2 Cell Death and Altered Gene Expression 316

16.9.3 Cell Death and Gene Therapy 316

16.9.4 Pseudoallergy and Idiosyncratic Reactions 317

16.9.5 Cytotoxicity 318

16.9.6 Implications for Nanotoxicology from Nonmedical Nanoparticles 318

16.10 Nanomedicine Applications 318

16.10.1 Analytical and Diagnostic Tools 318

16.10.1.1 In Vitro Diagnostic Devices 319

16.10.1.2 In Vivo Imaging 320

16.10.2 Drug Delivery 320

16.10.2.1 Micelles 321

16.10.2.2 Nanoemulsions 321

16.10.2.3 Solid Nanoparticles 321

16.10.3 Regenerative Medicine 321

16.11 Toxicological and Ethical Issues in Nanomedicine 322

16.11.1 Toxicity Issues 322

16.11.2 Ethical Issues 323

16.12 Conclusions 323

References 324

17 Nanocarriers-Based Topical Formulations for Acne Treatment 327
Júlia Scherer Santos

17.1 Introduction 327

17.2 Acne Therapeutics 328

17.2.1 Nanocarriers Toward Topical Acne Therapy 329

17.3 Efficacy and Safety of Nanotechnology-Based Acne Therapeutics 330

17.3.1 Ex Vivo and In Vitro Assays 331

17.3.2 Animal Assays 332

17.3.3 Clinical Assays 332

17.4 Improvement of Acne Therapy by Nanocarrier-Based Formulations 332

17.4.1 Conventional Drugs in Nanocarriers 334

17.4.2 Alternatives Drugs in Nanocarriers 335

17.5 Conclusion 336

References 336

18 Emerging Trends of Ocular Drug Delivery 341
Sora Yasri and Viroj Wiwanitkit

18.1 Introduction 341

18.2 Barriers to Ocular Drug Delivery 342

18.3 Classical Drug Delivery Technology 342

18.3.1 Anterior Segment 343

18.3.2 Posterior Segment 343

18.4 Novel Interventions for Ocular Drug Delivery 343

18.4.1 Ocular Implants 343

18.4.2 Punctum Plugs 344

18.4.3 Drug-Eluting Contact Lenses 344

18.4.4 Ocular Iontophoresis 345

18.4.5 Intravitreal Implants 345

18.4.6 Ocular Vaccination 346

18.5 Applied Nanotechnology for Ocular Drug Delivery 346

18.5.1 Nanomicelle 346

18.5.2 Liposomes 347

18.5.3 Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles 347

18.5.4 Niosomes 347

18.5.5 Nanospheres 347

18.5.6 Nanocapsules 347

18.5.7 Dendrimers 348

18.5.8 Nanowafers 348

18.5.9 Micronanosurgery for Ocular Drug Delivery 348

18.6 Conclusion 348

References 349

19 Microspheres: An Overview on Recent Advances in Novel Drug Delivery System 355
Sarang Kumar Jain, Swati Saxena and Raj K. Keservani

19.1 Introduction 355

19.2 Advantages of Novel Drug Delivery System 356

19.3 Classification of Novel Drug Delivery System 356

19.3.1 Microspheres 356

19.3.1.1 Types of Microspheres 356

19.3.2 Ideal Properties of Microparticulate Carriers 357

19.3.3 Polymers Used in Preparation of Microspheres 358

19.3.4 Advantages of Microspheres 359

19.3.5 Disadvantages of Microspheres 359

19.3.6 Classification of Microspheres 359

19.3.6.1 Bioadhesive Microspheres 359

19.3.6.2 Magnetic Microspheres 359

19.3.6.3 Floating Microspheres 360

19.3.6.4 Radioactive Microspheres 360

19.3.6.5 Polymeric Microspheres 360

19.3.7 Method of Preparation of Microspheres 360

19.3.7.1 Single Emulsion Technique 361

19.3.7.2 Double Emulsion Method 361

19.3.7.3 Polymerization Technique 362

19.3.7.4 Phase Separation Coacervation Technique 362

19.3.7.5 Spray Drying and Spray Congealing Method 363

19.3.7.6 Solvent Evaporation Method 363

19.3.8 Evaluation Parameters of Microspheres 364

19.3.8.1 Particle Size and Shape 364

19.3.8.2 Chemical Analysis by Electron Spectroscopy 364

19.3.8.3 FTIR Spectroscopy 364

19.3.8.4 Determination of Density 364

19.3.8.5 Isoelectric Point Determination 364

19.3.8.6 Entrapment Efficiency 364

19.3.8.7 Angle of Contact 364

19.3.8.8 Swelling Index 365

19.3.8.9 Production Yield 365

19.3.8.10 In Vitro Drug Release Study 365

19.3.8.11 Drug Release Kinetics 365

19.3.8.12 Stability Studies 365

19.3.9 Applications of Microspheres 365

References 366

20 Drug Delivery Systems and Oral Biofilm 367
Elda Patricia Segura Ceniceros, Luis Méndez González, Reginaldo Tijerina, Eduardo Osorio Ramos, Francisco Javier Mendoza González, Verónica Leticia Rodríguez Contreras, Alejandra Isabel Vargas Segura and Luis Antonio Vázquez Olvera

20.1 Introduction 368

20.2 Oral Biofilm 369

20.2.1 Biofilm Related Infections in The Oral Cavity 371

20.2.1.1 Oral Biofilm and Periodontal Disease 371

20.2.1.2 Oral Biofilm and Endodontic Infections 373

20.2.1.3 Oral Biofilm and Dental Caries 373

20.3 Drug Delivery Systems 374

20.3.1 Nanoparticles 375

20.3.2 Hydrogels 375

20.3.3 Dendrimers 376

20.4 Applications of Drug Delivery Systems for Treatment of Oral Biofilm Infection 376

20.4.1 DDS and Dental Caries 377

20.4.2 DDS and Periodontal Disease 378

20.4.3 DDS and Other Oral Pathologies 378

20.5 Conclusion 379

References 379

21 Oral Drug Delivery System: An Overview on Recent Advances in Novel Drug Delivery System 383
Sarang Kumar Jain, Ankita Sahu and Raj K. Keservani

21.1 Introduction 383

21.1.1 Oral Route 383

21.1.2 Oral Health 385

21.1.3 Oral Hygiene 386

21.2 Oral Drug Administration Sites 387

21.2.1 Oral Mucosal Drug Delivery System 387

21.2.1.1 Physiology of Oral Mucosa 388

21.2.1.2 Importance of Saliva and Mucin 388

21.2.2 Buccal and Sublingual Drug Absorption 389

21.3 Factors Affecting Drug Absorption 389

21.3.1 Lipid Solubility, pH, and Degree of Ionization 390

21.3.2 Molecule Weight and Size of Drug 390

21.3.3 Formulation Physiochemical Properties Related Factors 390

21.3.4 Permeability Enhancer 390

21.4 Drug Delivery for Periodontitis 391

21.4.1 Periodontal Pocket 391

21.4.1.1 Classification of Periodontal Pockets According to their Morphology 391

21.4.1.2 Classification of Periodontal Pocket According to the Involvement of Tooth Surfaces 392

21.5 Oral Periodontitis Drug Delivery System 393

21.5.1 Antibacterial DDS for Periodontitis 393

21.5.2 Remineralizing DDS 393

21.5.3 Inflammation Modulating and Alveolar Bone Repairing DDS for Periodontitis 394

21.5.3.1 DDS for Peri-Implantitis 394

21.6 Teeth Treatments 394

21.7 Periodontal Local Drug Delivery 395

21.8 Carriers of Oral and Periodontitis Drug Delivery System 395

21.8.1 Hydrogel 396

21.8.2 Dendrimers 396

21.8.3 Chewing Gum 396

21.8.4 Lozenges 397

21.8.5 Tablets 397

21.9 Mucoadhesive Drug Delivery System/Buccal Adhesive Drug Delivery System 397

21.9.1 Patches and Films 398

21.9.2 Oral Suspension 398

21.9.3 Spray 398

21.9.4 Liposome 398

21.9.5 Nanoparticles 399

21.9.6 Laminated Film 399

21.9.7 Injectable Gels 399

21.9.8 Fibers 399

21.9.9 Strips and Compacts 399

References 400

22 Cancer Nanotheranostics: A Review 401
Ozge Esim and Canan Hascikek

22.1 Introduction 401

22.1.1 Lipid and Polymer-Based Nanosystems 403

22.1.2 Magnetic Nanoparticles 413

22.1.3 Quantum Dots (QD) 418

22.1.4 Other Metal-Derived Nanoparticles 421

22.2 Conclusion 425

References 425

23 Nanomedicine in Lung Cancer Therapy 433
Jagdale Swati C., HableAsawaree A. and ChabukswarAnuruddha R.

23.1 Introduction 433

23.2 Nanotechnology 434

23.3 Nanomedicines for Lung Cancer Therapy 435

23.3.1 Nanoparticles 436

23.3.1.1 Gold and Silver Nanoparticles 436

23.3.1.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles 437

23.3.1.3 Inhalable Nanoparticles 437

23.3.2 Micelles 437

23.3.3 Dendrimers 439

23.3.4 Liposome 439

23.3.5 Carbon Nanotubes 440

23.3.6 Quantum Dots 441

23.3.7 Nanofibers 442

23.3.8 Nanoshells 442

23.4 Evaluation of Nanoformulations 442

23.5 Application of Nanoformulations 443

23.6 Marketed Therapies 444

23.7 Challenges 445

23.8 Potential 445

23.9 Future Scope 446

23.10 Conclusion 446

References 446

24 Delivering Herbal Drugs Using Nanotechnology 449
Manasa R. and Mahesh Shivananjappa

24.1 Introduction 449

24.2 Methods of Preparation of Nanoparticles 450

24.3 Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) for Herbal Drugs 451

24.3.1 Liposomes 451

24.3.2 Phytosomes 454

24.3.3 Transferosome 457

24.3.4 Niosomes 458

24.3.5 Ethosomes 459

24.3.6 Dendrimers 459

24.3.7 Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System (SNEDDS) 462

24.3.8 Self-Micro Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (SMEDDS) 463

24.4 Conclusion 464

References 464

25 Nanoherbals Drug Delivery System for Treatment of Chronic Asthma 473
Harsh Yadav, Satish Dubey, Naureen Shaba Khan and Ashwini Kumar Dixit

25.1 Introduction 474

25.2 Mechanism of Asthma Physiopathology 474

25.3 Asthma Etiology 475

25.4 Severity of Asthma 475

25.5 Asthma Phenotypes 475

25.6 Asthma Epidemiology 476

25.7 Asthma Treatment 476

25.7.1 Adverse Effects of Current Treatment Techniques 477

25.8 Need of Natural Products as Alternative 477

25.9 Selected Medicinal Plants in Asthma Treatment 478

25.9.1 Piper betel Linn 478

25.9.2 Bacopa monnieri L. 479

25.9.3 Momordica charantia 479

25.9.4 Ficus bengalensis (Linn.) 479

25.9.5 Clerodendrum serratum (Linn.) Moon 479

25.10 Potentials of Nanotechnology in Asthma Drug Delivery 479

25.11 Nanoherbals as Asthma Drug Delivery System 482

25.12 Future Prospectus of Nanoherbal Drug Delivery 483

25.13 Conclusion 484

References 484

26 Nutrients Delivery for Management and Prevention of Diseases 491
Darul Raiyaan G. I., Sameera Khathoon A. and Kantha D. Arunachalam

26.1 Introduction 491

26.2 Nutrients in Management and Prevention of Disease 492

26.2.1 Herbal Nutrients 492

26.2.2 FDA Regulations on Herbal Drugs 493

26.3 Phenolic Nutraceuticals 493

26.3.1 Polyphenols and Neurodegeneration 494

26.3.2 Polyphenols and Brain Tumors 494

26.3.3 Phenols and Other Cancer Treatments 494

26.3.4 Phenols and Hepatotoxicity 495

26.3.5 Clinical Trials 496

26.3.6 Curcumin 496

26.4 Routes for Nutrients Delivery 497

26.4.1 Oral Route 497

26.4.2 Intranasal Delivery 497

26.4.3 Transdermal Route 497

26.5 Nanoparticle-Based Nutrients Delivery System 498

26.5.1 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) 498

26.5.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) 499

26.5.3 Liposomes 499

26.5.4 Nanocrystals 499

26.5.5 α-Lactalbumin 500

26.5.6 Carbon Nanotubes 500

26.5.7 Nanocochleates 500

26.5.8 Nanosized Self-Assembled Liquid Structures 500

26.5.9 Polysaccharide-Based Nanoscale Delivery of Nutrients 500

26.5.10 Chitosan 501

26.5.11 Alginate 501

26.5.12 Pectin 502

26.5.13 Gum Arabic 502

26.5.14 Cashew Gum 503

26.6 Protein-Based Nanoscale Delivery of Nutrients 503

26.6.1 Zein 503

26.6.2 Gliadin 503

26.6.3 Soy Protein Isolates (SPI) 504

26.6.4 Whey Protein 504

26.6.5 Casein 505

26.6.6 Other Proteins 505

26.7 Micelles 505

26.8 Advantages of Nanomaterials in Nutraceuticals 507

26.9 Safety and Toxicity of Nanostructures Applied in Food Systems 509

26.10 Conclusion 509

References 509

27 Nanonutraceuticals for Drug Delivery 521
Charu Gupta and Dhan Prakash

27.1 Introduction 521

27.2 Approaches to Enhance Oral Bioavailability of Nutraceuticals 522

27.2.1 Protection of Labile Compounds 523

27.2.2 Extension of Gastric Retention Time 523

27.2.3 Intonation of Metabolic Activities 523

27.3 Carriers for Nutraceutical Delivery 523

27.3.1 Nanoparticles for Nutraceuticals Delivery 524

27.3.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) for Nutraceutical Delivery 524

27.3.3 Niosomes 525

27.3.4 Nanospheres 525

27.3.5 Nanoliposomes 525

27.3.6 Nanofibers 526

27.3.7 Nanoemulsion 526

27.4 Nanotechnology in Food Sector 527

27.4.1 Nanotechnology in Nutraceuticals 527

27.4.2 Nanotechnology in Medications 528

27.4.3 Commercial Nanonutraceuticals 533

27.4.4 Nanosized Self-Assembled Structured Liquids 534

27.5 Delivery of Nutraceuticals 536

27.5.1 In-Feed or Oral Nanodelivery 536

27.5.2 Dermal Delivery 537

27.5.3 Ophthalmic Delivery 537

27.6 Constraints in Nanodrug Delivery Systems 537

27.7 Conclusion 537

Acknowledgments 538

References 538

Index 541