Applied Soil Chemistry

Inamuddin PhD is an assistant professor at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and is also an assistant professor in the Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy and environmental science. He has published about 150 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and edited 60 books with multiple well-known publishers. Mohd Imran Ahamed PhD is in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in SCI journals. His research focuses on ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment and analysis, actuators and electrospinning. Rajender Boddula PhD is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals, edited books with numerous publishers and has authored 20 book chapters. Tariq Altalhi is Head of the Department of Chemistry and Vice Dean of Science College at Taif University, Saudi Arabia. He received his PhD from the University of Adelaide, Australia in 2014. His research interests include developing advanced chemistry-based solutions for solid and liquid municipal waste management, converting plastic bags to carbon nanotubes, and fly ash to efficient adsorbent material.

Preface xiii

1 Potential and Challenges of Carbon Sequestration in Soils 1
Erfan Sadatshojaei, David A. Wood and Mohammad Reza Rahimpour

List of Abbreviations and Units 2

1.1 Introduction 2

1.1.1 Soil Decomposition Processes 4

1.1.2 Organic Compounds Present in Soils 6

1.1.3 Cycle Time of Carbon in Soils 7

1.2 Influences Impacting Carbon Stabilization Rates in Soils 8

1.2.1 Weather Conditions and Fluctuations 9

1.2.2 Plant and Natural Biomass Inputs 11

1.2.3 Organic Enrichment Treatments 11

1.2.4 Tilled and Ploughed Agricultural Land 11

1.2.5 Pasture Managed for Livestock Grazing 12

1.2.6 Irrigated Arable Lands and Their Associated Drainage 12

1.2.7 Uncertain Impacts of Soil Erosion and Redistribution on Its Carbon Store 13

1.2.8 Fire Impacts on Soil Characteristics 13

1.3 Carbon-Sequestration Potential of Specific Vegetation Zones and Ecosystems 14

1.3.1 Croplands 14

1.3.2 Grasslands 15

1.3.3 Woodlands 16

1.3.4 Temperate Wetlands and Peat Bogs 16

1.3.5 Induced Changes in Vegetation and Land Conditions 16

1.3.6 Warm Temperate and Tropical Vegetated Zones 17

1.4 Estimates of Global Potential for Carbon Sequestration in Soils 17

1.5 Conclusions 18

References 18

2 A Brief Insight on Factors Controlling Rate of Chemical Weathering of Minerals Existing in Soil 23
Tejaswini Sahoo, Rashmirekha Tripathy, Jagannath Panda, Madhuri Hembram, Saraswati Soren, Deepak Kumar Senapati, C.K. Rath, Sunil Kumar Sahoo and Rojalin Sahu

2.1 Introduction 23

2.1.1 Weathering Similar to Hydrothermal and Diuretic Alteration of Minerals 25

2.2 Comparitive Stability of Minerals on the Basis of Their Sequence of Weathering 26

2.2.1 Heavy Minerals 26

2.2.2 Coarsely Grinded Minerals 27

2.2.3 Clay Size Mineral Particles 27

2.3 Factors Affecting the Rate of Chemical Weathering 28

2.3.1 Capacity Factors Which Controls the Reaction Rate of Chemical Weathering 28

2.3.1.1 Specific Surface Role 28

2.3.1.2 Specific Weatherability Role of Mineral 29

2.3.2 Intensity Factors Which Drives the Chemical Weathering Reaction Rate 29

2.3.2.1 Factor of Temperature 29

2.3.2.2 Leaching and Water Contribution 30

2.3.2.3 Acidity Factor 31

2.3.2.4 Biotic Processes Factor 31

2.3.2.5 Reduction and Oxidation Factor 32

2.3.2.6 Influence of Time on the Rate of Chemical Weathering 33

2.4 Conclusion 34

References 34

3 Agroecosystems and Bioeconomy 41
Paolo Di Sia

3.1 Introduction 42

3.2 Problems Related to Agricultural Intensification 43

3.3 Important Themes and Indicators 46

3.4 The Bioeconomy 48

3.5 On Circular Bioeconomy 49

3.6 Bioeconomy, Environment, and Natural Capital 50

3.7 The Bioeconomy in Daily Life 52

3.8 Conclusions 54

References 56

4 Technological Advances in Analyzing of Soil Chemistry 61
M. Ramesh and L. Rajeshkumar

4.1 Introduction 61

4.2 Soil Chemistry 62

4.2.1 Advances in Time-Resolved Molecular Scale Techniques 64

4.2.2 Carbon Speciation in Soils 66

4.2.3 Soil Analysis Using Sensors 68

4.2.4 Soil Analysis Using AI 68

4.2.5 Soil Analysis Using ML 69

4.2.6 Soil Analysis Using IoT 69

4.2.7 Soil Analysis Using Big Data 71

4.2.8 Soil Analysis Using Drone and/or Satellite 73

4.3 Conclusion 74

References 75

5 An Overview of Soil Chemistry and Role of Its Components in Sorption of Heavy Metals in Soil 79
Shagufta Jabin, Jamal A. Khan and Sapana Jadoun

5.1 Introduction 80

5.2 Composition of Soil 80

5.2.1 Solid Phase 81

5.2.1.1 Soil Inorganic Matters 81

5.2.1.2 Soil Organic Matter 85

5.2.2 Liquid Phase 86

5.2.3 Gaseous Phase 88

5.3 Soil Characterization 89

5.3.1 Structure 89

5.3.2 Color 91

5.3.3 Texture 91

5.3.4 Bulk Density 92

5.3.5 Particle Size Distribution 92

5.4 Physico-Chemical Properties of Soil 92

5.4.1 Soil pH 93

5.4.2 Soil Temperature 93

5.4.3 Electrical Conductivity 93

5.4.4 Cation Exchange Capacity 94

5.5 Sorption Behavior of Soil 94

5.6 Conclusion 97

References 97

6 Soil and Their Contaminants 105
Anupama Rajput

6.1 Introduction 105

6.1.1 Component of Soil 105

6.1.2 Major Types of Soil in India 107

6.1.3 The Various Factors Occurs in Soil Formation 107

6.1.4 Types of Soil Textures 107

6.1.4.1 Clayer Soils 107

6.1.4.2 Sandy Soils 109

6.1.4.3 Slit Soils 109

6.2 Soil Organic Matter (SOM) 109

6.2.1 Soil Chemical Reaction 110

6.2.2 Sality and Acidity 110

6.3 Contaminants in Soil 111

6.3.1 Pesticides 112

6.3.2 Some of the Adverse Effects of Pesticides 112

6.4 Pollution of Soil 112

6.4.1 Effects of Modern Agriculture 113

6.4.2 Effects of Chemicals 113

6.5 Chemistry of Saline Soil 115

6.6 The Effect of Salinity in Plant Growth 117

6.7 Conclusion 118

References 118

7 Fertilization and Fertilizer Types 123
İdris Karagöz

7.1 Introduction 124

7.2 The Purpose and Application Methods of Fertilization 125

7.3 Classification of Fertilizers 131

7.4 Fertilizers Containing Organic Matters 132

7.4.1 Herbal and Animal-Based Fertilizers 132

7.4.2 Organomineral Fertilizers 134

7.4.3 Soil Conditioners 135

7.5 Chemical Fertilizers 136

7.5.1 Solid and Liquid Fertilizers With Inorganic Primary Single and Compound Plant Nutrients 137

7.5.2 Fertilizers With Inorganic Secondary Nutrients 142

7.5.3 Fertilizers With Micro Plant Nutrients 143

7.6 Conclusion and Evaluation 145

References 145

8 Heavy Metal Chemistry in Soils 149
Sapna Nehra, Rekha Sharma and Dinesh Kumar

8.1 Introduction 149

8.2 Outline of the Heavy Metal Chemistry in Soil 151

8.3 Conclusions 158

8.4 Abbreviations 159

Acknowledgment 160

References 160

9 Modeling of Pollutant Mobility in Soil 165
Jülide Hızal

9.1 Introduction 165

9.2 Modeling of Heavy Metal Sorption onto Soil or Soil Components 166

9.3 Modeling of Sorption of Other Pollutants onto Soil or Soil Components 177

9.4 Conclusion 178

References 179

10 Soil Chemistry: Composition and Laws 183
Manju Yadav and Dinesh Kumar

10.1 Introduction 183

10.2 The Materials With Which Nutrients React 184

10.2.1 The Clay Minerals 185

10.2.2 Variable-Charge Mineral Surfaces 186

10.2.3 Organic Matter 188

10.3 Soil Chemistry: Laws 189

10.3.1 First Law 189

10.3.2 Second Law 190

10.3.3 Third Rule 192

Acknowledgments 194

References 194

11 Parameters of Soil Chemistry 197
Manju Yadav and Dinesh Kumar

11.1 Introduction 197

11.1.2 Soil Morphology 199

11.1.3 Basic Soil Components 199

11.1.3.1 Mineral 200

11.1.3.2 Water 200

11.1.3.3 Organic Matter 201

11.1.3.4 Gases 201

11.1.3.5 Microorganisms 202

11.2 Concepts of Soil Chemistry 202

11.2.1 Soil Aeration 203

11.2.2 Soil Colloid 204

11.2.3 Soil Water 204

11.2.4 Ion Exchange Property 206

11.2.4.1 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 206

11.2.4.2 Anion Exchange Capacity (AEC) 207

11.2.5 Soil pH–Acidity and Alkalinity 208

11.2.5.1 Acid Soil Formation 209

11.2.5.2 Acid Soil Benefits 210

11.2.5.3 Liming-Decreasing Soil Acidity 211

11.2.5.4 Alkaline Soil Formation 211

Acknowledgments 212

References 212

12 Essential Soil Functions for Enhanced Agricultural Productivity and Food Production 215
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji and Osayomwanbo Osarenotor

12.1 Introduction 216

12.2 Effect of Pesticides on Soil Function Indicator 216

12.3 Soil Organic Matter 219

12.4 Soil Organic Carbon 220

12.4.1 Relationship Between Global Carbon Cycle and Soil Carbon as a Typical Example of Soil Function 221

12.4.2 Relationship Between CO2 Levels in the Atmosphere and Soil Carbon Content 222

12.4.3 Relationship Between Soil Organic Content and Soil Carbon Sequestration 222

12.4.4 Essential Soil Biological Processes and Their Relationship With Soil pH 224

12.4.4.1 Microbial Ecophysiological Indicators 224

12.4.5 Soil Enzyme Activities and Their Relationship With Soil pH 225

12.4.6 Biodegradation of Toxic Substances by Soil Microorganisms and Their Relationship With Soil pH 225

12.4.6.1 Water Holding Capacity 226

12.4.6.2 Soil Erodibility 226

12.4.6.3 Nutrient Cycling 226

12.5 Conclusion and Future Recommendation to Knowledge 227

References 228

13 Role of Pesticide Applications in Sustainable Agriculture 235
Osikemekha Anthony Anani and Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji

13.1 Introduction 235

13.2 Various Types of Pesticides and Their Application in Agriculture 237

13.3 Modes of Action of Pesticides 241

13.3.1 Organochlorine Pesticides 245

13.3.2 Organophosphorus Pesticides 245

13.3.4 Carbamate Pesticides 246

13.3.5 Other Classes of Chemical Pesticides 247

13.4 Conclusion and Recommendation to Knowledge 247

References 248

Index 257