Geochemistry

Inamuddin PhD is an assistant professor at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and is also an assistant professor in the Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy and environmental science. He has published about 150 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and edited 60 books with multiple well-known publishers. Mohd Imran Ahamed PhD is in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in SCI journals. His research focuses on ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment and analysis, actuators and electrospinning. Rajender Boddula PhD is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals, edited books with numerous publishers and has authored 20 book chapters. Tariq Altalhi is Head of the Department of Chemistry and Vice Dean of Science College at Taif University, Saudi Arabia. He received his PhD from the University of Adelaide, Australia in 2014. His research interests include developing advanced chemistry-based solutions for solid and liquid municipal waste management, converting plastic bags to carbon nanotubes, and fly ash to efficient adsorbent material.

Preface xiii

1 Toxic Geogenic Contaminants in Serpentinitic Geological Systems: Occurrence, Behavior, Exposure Pathways, and Human Health Risks 1
Willis Gwenzi

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 Serpentinitic Geological Systems 4

1.2.1 Nature, Occurrence, and Geochemistry 4

1.2.2 Occurrence and Behavior of Toxic Contaminants 5

1.2.2.1 Chrysotile Asbestos 5

1.2.2.2 Toxic Metals 5

1.2.2.3 Rare Earth Elements 6

1.3 Human Exposure Pathways 7

1.3.1 Occupational Exposure 7

1.3.2 Non-Occupational Exposure Routes 7

1.3.2.1 Inhalation of Contaminated Particulates 7

1.3.2.2 Ingestion of Contaminated Geophagic Earths 8

1.3.2.3 Ingestion of Contaminated Drinking Water 8

1.3.2.4 Ingestion of Contaminated Medicinal Plants 8

1.3.2.5 Ingestion of Contaminated Wild Foods 9

1.4 Human Health Risks and Their Mitigation 10

1.4.1 Health Risks 10

1.4.1.1 Chrysotile Asbestos 10

1.4.1.2 Toxic Metals 11

1.4.1.3 Rare Earth Elements 11

1.4.2 Mitigating Human Exposure and Health Risks 12

1.4.2.1 Risk Analysis 12

1.4.2.2 Risk Evaluation 12

1.4.2.3 Risk Mitigation 13

1.4.2.4 Overview of Mitigation Interventions 13

1.5 Future Perspectives 13

1.6 Conclusions 14

Acknowledgements 15

References 15

2 Benefits of Geochemistry and Its Impact on Human Health 23
Abel Inobeme, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Muhammad Akram, Maliki Munirat, Inamuddin, Umme Laila, S.O. Okonkwo, Saher Islam and Jonathan Inobeme

2.1 Introduction 24

2.2 General Overview of Geochemistry and Human Health 25

2.2.1 Types of Geochemistry 26

2.2.2 Some Beneficial Effect of Some Mineral With Health Benefits 26

2.2.2.1 Magnesium 27

2.2.2.2 Manganese 27

2.2.2.3 Calcium 27

2.2.2.4 Cobalt 28

2.2.2.5 Copper 28

2.2.2.6 Zinc 29

2.2.2.7 Iron 29

2.2.2.8 Sodium 29

2.2.2.9 Arsenic 30

2.2.2.10 Chlorine 30

2.2.2.11 Iodine 30

2.2.2.12 Potassium 31

2.2.2.13 Fluoride 31

2.2.3 Application of Geochemistry on Human Health 32

2.3 Conclusion and Recommendations 33

References 34

3 Applications of Geochemistry in Livestock: Health and Nutritional Perspective 37
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, J. Inobeme, Inamuddin, Muhammad Akram, A. Inobeme, Khuram Shahzad, Maliki Munirat, Saher Islam, Noshiza Majeed and S.O. Okonkwo

3.1 Introduction 38

3.2 General and Global Perspective About Geochemistry in Livestock 39

3.3 Types of Geochemistry and Their Numerous Benefits 41

3.3.1 Analytical Geochemistry 42

3.3.2 Isotope Geochemistry 43

3.3.3 Low Temperature Geochemistry 43

3.3.4 Organic and Petroleum Geochemistry 44

3.4 Application of Geochemistry in Livestock 44

3.5 Geochemistry and Animal Health 44

3.6 General Overview of Geochemistry in Livestock’s Merits of Geochemistry/Essential Minerals in Livestocks 45

3.6.1 Specific Examples of Authors That Have Used Essential Minerals in Livestock 47

3.6.2 Livestock in Relation to Geominerals 48

3.6.3 Trace Minerals Parallel Importance in Livestock 48

3.6.4 Heavy Metals Impact Livestock 49

3.7 Conclusion and Recommendations 50

References 51

4 Application in Geochemistry Toward the Achievement of a Sustainable Agricultural Science 57
Muhammad Akram, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, S.O. Okonkwo, Inamuddin, Umme Laila, J. Inobeme, A. Inobeme, Saher Islam and Maliki Munirat

4.1 Introduction 58

4.2 General Overview on the Utilization of Geochemistry and Their Wide Application on Agriculture 59

4.2.1 Classification 60

4.2.2 Chemical Composition of Rocks 60

4.2.3 Effect of Some Beneficial Minerals in Agriculture 60

4.2.4 Beneficial Mineral Nutrients That are Crucial to the Development of Plants 62

4.2.4.1 Micronutrients 63

4.3 Role of Geochemistry in Agriculture 65

4.4 Geochemical Effects of Heavy Metals on Crops Health 65

4.5 Conclusion and Recommendations 69

References 69

5 Geochemistry, Extent of Pollution, and Ecological Impact of Heavy Metal Pollutants in Soil 73
Abhiroop Chowdhury, Aliya Naz and Diksha Sharma

5.1 Introduction 74

5.2 Material and Methods 75

5.2.1 Review Process 75

5.2.2 Ecological Risk Index 75

5.3 Toxic Heavy Metal and Their Impact to the Ecosystems 76

5.3.1 Arsenic 76

5.3.2 Cadmium 77

5.3.3 Chromium 78

5.3.4 Copper 78

5.3.5 Lead 79

5.3.6 Nickel 79

5.3.7 Zinc 80

5.4 Metal Pollution in Soil Across the Globe 80

5.5 Ecological and Human Health Risk Impacts of Heavy Metals 85

5.6 Conclusion 87

References 87

6 Isotope Geochemistry 93
Praveen Kumar Yadav, Amit Kumar Mauraya, Chinky Kochar, Lakhan Taneja and S. Swarupa Tripathy

6.1 Introduction 93

6.2 Basic Definitions 94

6.2.1 The Notation 94

6.2.2 The Fractionation Factor 95

6.2.3 Isotope Fractionation 95

6.2.3.1 Kinetic Isotope Fractionation 95

6.2.3.2 Equilibrium Isotope Fractionation 96

6.2.4 Mass Dependent and Independent Fractionations 97

6.3 Application of Traditional Isotopes in Geochemistry 98

6.3.1 Geothermometer 98

6.3.2 Isotopes in Biological System 98

6.3.2.1 Carbon (C) 99

6.3.2.2 Nitrogen (N) 100

6.3.3 Isotopes in Archaeology 100

6.3.4 Isotopes in Fossils and the Earliest Life 101

6.3.5 Isotopes in Hydrothermal and Ore Deposits 101

6.4 Non-Traditional Isotopes in Geochemistry 102

6.4.1 Application in Tracing of Source 102

6.4.2 Application in Process Tracing 103

6.4.3 Biological Cycling 104

6.5 Conclusion 105

References 105

7 Environmental Geochemistry 111
Sapna Nehra, Rekha Sharma and Dinesh Kumar

7.1 Introduction 111

7.2 Overview of the Environmental Geochemistry 112

7.3 Conclusions 120

7.4 Abbreviations 121

Acknowledgment 121

References 121

8 Medical Geochemistry 127
Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan

8.1 Introduction 128

8.2 The Evolution of Geochemistry 129

8.3 This Science has Expanded Considerably to Become Distinct Branches 129

8.3.1 Cosmochemistry 131

8.3.2 The Economic Importance of Geochemistry 131

8.3.3 Analytical Geochemistry 132

8.3.4 Geochemistry of Radioisotopes 132

8.3.5 Medical Geochemistry and Human Health 134

8.3.6 Environmental Health and Safety 137

8.4 Conclusion 142

References 143

9 Inorganic Geochemistry 149
Sathasivam Pratheep Kumar, Triveni Rajashekhar Mandlimath and M. Ramesh

9.1 Introduction 149

9.2 Elements and the Earth 150

9.2.1 Iron 150

9.2.2 Oxygen 151

9.2.3 Silicon 152

9.2.4 Magnesium 152

9.3 Geological Minerals 152

9.3.1 Quartz 152

9.3.2 Feldspar 153

9.3.3 Amphibole 153

9.3.4 Pyroxene 153

9.3.5 Olivine 153

9.3.6 Clay Minerals 153

9.3.7 Kaolinite 154

9.3.8 Bentonite, Montmorillonite, Vermiculite, and Biotite 154

9.4 Characterization Techniques 155

9.4.1 Powder X-Ray Diffraction 155

9.4.2 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectra 156

9.4.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectra 156

9.4.4 Electron Probe Micro-Analysis 156

9.4.5 Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry 157

9.4.6 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 157

9.4.7 Scanning Electron Microscopy Analysis 158

9.4.8 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis 158

9.5 Conclusion 159

References 159

10 Introduction and Scope of Geochemistry 161
Triveni Rajashekhar Mandlimath, Sathasivam Pratheep Kumar and M. Ramesh

10.1 Introduction 161

10.1.1 Periodic Table and Electronic Configuration 162

10.1.1.1 Periodic Table 162

10.1.1.2 Electronic Configuration 164

10.2 Periodic Properties 164

10.2.1 Ionization Enthalpy 164

10.2.2 Electron Affinity 165

10.2.3 Electro-Negativity 166

10.3 Chemical Bonding 166

10.3.1 Ionic Bond 166

10.3.2 Covalent Bond 166

10.3.3 Metallic Bond 167

10.3.4 Hydrogen Bond 167

10.3.5 Van der Waals Forces 167

10.4 Geochemical Classification and Distribution of Elements 167

10.4.1 Lithophiles 167

10.4.2 Siderophiles 168

10.4.3 Chalcophiles 169

10.4.4 Atmophiles 169

10.4.5 Biophiles 169

10.5 Chemical Composition of the Earth 169

10.6 Classification of Earth’s Layers 170

10.6.1 Based on Chemical Composition 170

10.6.2 Based on Physical Properties 170

10.7 Spheres of the Earth 171

10.7.1 Geosphere/Lithosphere 171

10.7.2 Hydrosphere 172

10.7.3 Biosphere 172

10.7.4 Atmosphere 172

10.7.5 Troposphere 173

10.7.6 Stratosphere 173

10.7.7 Mesosphere 174

10.7.8 Thermosphere and Ionosphere 174

10.7.9 Exosphere 174

10.8 Sub-Disciplines of Geochemistry 175

10.9 Scope of Geochemistry 175

10.10 Conclusion 176

References 176