Biofibers and Biopolymers for Biocomposites (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 7
Editors and Contributors 9
Surface Modification Techniques for the Preparation of Different Novel Biofibers for Composites 16
1 Introduction 16
2 Physical Treatment Techniques 19
3 Plasma Treatment 19
4 Corona Treatment 22
5 Ultrasound Treatment 23
6 Ultraviolet Treatment 23
7 Chemical Treatment Techniques 25
8 Alkaline Treatment 26
9 Silane Treatment 28
10 Acetylation Treatment 32
11 Benzoylation Treatment 34
12 Acrylation and Acrylonitrile Grafting 38
13 Maleated Coupling Agents 39
14 Permanganate Treatment 40
15 Peroxide Treatment 42
16 Isocyanate Treatment 42
17 Other Treatments 43
18 Concluding Remarks 43
References 44
Structure and Surface Morphology Techniques for Biopolymers 50
1 Introduction 50
2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 51
3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR) 56
4 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 61
5 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 65
6 Optical Microscopy 69
7 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 71
8 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 77
9 Summary 80
References 82
Properties of Cellulose Based Bio-fibres Reinforced Polymer Composites 86
1 Introduction 86
2 Properties of CFRCs 87
2.1 Mechanical Properties 87
2.2 Fatigue Properties 91
2.3 Interfacial Properties 92
2.4 Thermal Properties 92
2.5 Sound Absorption Properties 93
2.6 Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) Spectroscopy Analysis 93
2.7 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis 93
2.8 Water Absorption Characteristics 94
2.9 Wear Behavior 95
2.10 Morphological Properties 95
3 Conclusion 98
References 100
Biocomposites from Biofibers and Biopolymers 105
1 Polylactic Acid as Matrix 105
2 Biobased Resins as Matrix 110
2.1 Bioepoxies 110
2.2 Vegetable Oil Based Resins 111
2.3 Polysaccharides and Lignocelluloses as Resins 115
2.4 Proteins as Resins 118
2.5 Ionic Liquid Processed Biocomposites 119
3 Performance of Biodegradable Resins and Composites 119
4 Environmental Degradation 121
5 Biodegradability 122
References 123
Influence of Fillers on the Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Biocomposites: An Overview 125
1 Introduction 125
2 Overview of Fillers Used in Biocomposites 127
3 Classification of Fillers 127
4 Inorganic Fillers 127
5 Organic Fillers 129
6 Factors Influencing the Properties of the Fillers 130
7 Influence of Fillers on the Thermal Properties of Biocomposites 130
8 Effect of Filler Loading 130
9 Effect of Chemical Modification 134
10 Effect of Filler Size 137
11 Influence of Fillers on the Mechanical Properties of Biocomposites 138
12 Effect of Filler Size and Filler Loading 138
13 Effect of Chemical Modification 140
14 Aging Effects 140
15 Challenges, Opportunities, Current Developments, and Applications 141
16 Concluding Remarks 142
References 143
Bionanocomposites from Biofibers and Biopolymers 148
1 Introduction 149
2 Biofibers and Biopolymers—Building Blocks of Bionanocomposites 150
2.1 Cellulose 151
2.2 Nanocellulose 152
2.3 Lignin 152
2.4 Chitin and Chitosan 153
3 What are Bionanocomposites? 154
4 Biofibers and Biopolymers Based Bionanocomposites 154
4.1 Cellulose-Based Bionanocomposites 155
4.2 Chitin and Chitosan-Based Bionanocomposites 156
4.3 Poly(hydroxyalkanoates)-Based Bionanocomposites 156
5 Applications of Bionanocomposites 158
6 Conclusions and Outlook 164
References 165
Bamboo Strips with Nodes: Composites Viewpoint 171
1 Introduction 171
2 Materials 173
3 Measurements 173
4 Mechanical Properties Investigation 173
5 Thermal Properties Investigation 174
6 Surface Morphology Investigation 174
7 Statistical Analysis 175
8 Tensile Properties of Bamboo Strips 175
9 Compressive Properties of Bamboo Strips 176
10 Flexural Properties of Bamboo Strips 177
11 Impact Properties of Bamboo Strips 177
12 Thermal Behavior of Bamboo Strips 178
13 Concluding Remarks 178
References 179
Water Hyacinth for Biocomposites—An Overview 182
1 Introduction 182
2 Properties of Water Hyacinth Fiber 183
3 Issues and Opportunities in Extraction 184
4 Treatment of the Water Hyacinth Fiber 185
5 Composite Preparations 186
6 Compression Molding 186
7 Properties of Water Hyacinth Composites 186
8 Biomass Production 187
9 Domestic Application 187
10 Engineering Application 188
11 Conclusion 188
References 189
Ionic Liquids Based Processing of Renewable and Sustainable Biopolymers 191
1 Introduction 191
1.1 Ionic Liquids (ILs) 192
1.2 Renewable and Sustainable Biopolymers 193
2 Dissolution of Biopolymers in ILs 197
2.1 Dissolution of Cellulose Biopolymer 198
2.2 Dissolution of Lignin 199
3 Processing of Biopolymers in ILs 200
3.1 Processing of Carbohydrate Biopolymers 200
3.2 Processing of Lignin 203
4 Closed Loop Biorefinery 208
5 ILs for Characterization of Renewable and Sustainable Biopolymers 208
6 Challenges for ILs Based Processing of Biopolymers 209
6.1 Reducing the Particle Size of Renewable Lignocellulosic Composites 209
6.2 Stability and Recycling Issues of ILs 210
6.3 Product Isolation from IL Post-Reaction Phase 210
6.4 Toxicity and Eco-Protection Hazards 211
6.5 Cost Effectiveness of ILs 211
7 Conclusion 211
8 Future Perspectives 212
References 212
Development of Porous Bio-Nano-Composites Using Microwave Processing 218
1 Introduction 218
2 Mechanism of Degradation 219
2.1 Fragmentation 219
2.2 Biodegradation 219
3 Classification of Biodegradable Polymers 219
3.1 Agro-Polymers 220
3.2 Polysaccharides 221
3.3 Protein 221
3.4 Micro-organism Derived 222
3.5 Bio-Derived Monomers 222
3.6 Petroleum Derived Monomers 222
4 Composite Fabrication 224
4.1 Fibre Reinforcement 224
4.2 Particulate Reinforcement 224
5 Introduction to Microwave-Assisted Heating 225
6 Microwave Material Interaction Mechanism 226
7 Case Study: Development of Biodegradable Porous Composite of Hydroxyapatite Reinforced PCL and PLA Composites 227
7.1 Initial Stage 229
7.2 Interaction Stage 229
7.3 Temperature Rising Stage 231
7.4 Heat Transfer Stage 232
7.5 Fabrication Stage 232
7.6 Leaching Stage 232
8 Microstructural Characterisation of Porous Composites 232
9 Comparison of Microwave Processed HA Reinforced PCL and PLA Porous Composites 233
10 Effect of Microwave Power on Interfacial Bonding 234
11 Effect of Dielectric Properties of Constituting Materials on Time–Temperature Curve 235
12 Concluding Remarks 235
References 236
Cellulose Based Biomaterials: Benefits and Challenges 238
1 Introduction 239
2 Bacterial Cellulose 241
2.1 Synthesis of BC 242
2.2 BC Cultivation Methods 243
2.3 Composite Formation 244
2.4 BNC Coating 244
2.5 Properties of BC 244
2.6 BNC Cultivation Methods 246
2.7 Agitated Culture 246
2.8 Effects of Drying Methods on Morphology of Membranes 246
2.9 In situ Modifications of Preformed BC 247
2.10 Uses of BC 247
3 Bacterial Cellulose for Biomedical Applications 248
3.1 Skin 248
3.2 Vascular Grafts 249
3.3 For Bone 250
3.4 Tissue Biocompatibility 250
3.5 Degradation of Cellulose 250
3.6 Cellulosic Composites 250
3.7 Drawbacks 251
References 251
Cellulose Based Bio Polymers: Synthesis, Functionalization and Applications in Heavy Metal Adsorption 256
1 Introduction 256
2 Nanocellulose: Synthesis, Functionalization and Applications 258
2.1 Synthesis of Nanocellulose 258
2.2 Functionalization 260
3 Functionalized Nanocellulose for the Adsorption of Heavy Metals from Contaminated Water 261
4 Concluding Remarks 262
References 262
Arundo Donax Fibers as Green Materials for Oil Spill Recovery 267
1 Introduction 267
2 Advances on Green Materials for Oil Spill Recovery Technologies 269
3 Fibers Preparation and Characterization 272
3.1 Arundo Donax Fibers Preparation 273
3.2 Sorption Capacity Experiment 273
4 Performance Evaluation and Characterization of Arundo Donax (AD) Fibers for Oil Spill Recovery Applications 274
4.1 Morphology of Arundo Donax Fibers 274
4.2 Sorption Performances 275
4.3 Morphological and Structural Aspects of Oil Spill AD Materials 284
5 Conclusions and Future Trends 287
References 288
Effect of Surface Modification on Characteristics of Naturally Woven Coconut Leaf Sheath Fabric as Potential Reinforcement of Composites 292
1 Introduction 292
2 Materials 293
3 Experimentation 294
3.1 CLS Fabric Tensile Test 294
4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 294
5 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 294
6 Results and Discussion 295
6.1 Naturally Woven CLS Fabric Tensile Test 295
7 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 296
8 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 297
9 Conclusions 299
References 300
Effect of Glass and Banana Fiber Mat Orientation and Number of Layers on Mechanical Properties of Hybrid Composites 302
1 Introduction 302
2 Materials 305
3 Preparation of Composites 306
3.1 Characterization 307
4 Results and Discussion 311
4.1 Effect of Number and Orientation of Layers on Tensile Properties 311
5 Effect of Number and Orientation of Layers on Flexural Properties 313
6 Effect of Number and Orientation of Layers on Impact Properties 315
7 Conclusion 317
References 317