NanoBioMedicine (eBook)

Foreword 6
Preface 7
Acknowledgements 9
About this Book 10
Contents 11
About the Editors 14
Part I: NanoBioMedicine: Revolutionary Interdiscipline 16
1: Current Advances in Nanotechnology and Medicine 17
1.1 Introduction 18
1.2 Nanotechnology in Disease Diagnosis 19
1.2.1 Nanoparticles for In Vivo Diagnostics 19
1.2.1.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 20
1.2.1.2 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 20
1.2.1.3 Computed Tomography (CT) 20
1.2.2 Recent Advancement of Nano-Based Molecular Diagnostics 21
1.2.2.1 Gold Nanoparticles (GNPs or AuNPs) 21
1.2.2.2 Quantum Dots (QDs) 21
1.2.2.3 Magnetic Nanoparticles 22
1.3 Nanotechnology-Based Therapeutics 22
1.3.1 Antimicrobial Nanoparticles 22
1.3.2 Nanotechnology in Cancer Therapy 22
1.3.3 Nanoparticles in Antidiabetic Therapy 23
1.3.4 Nanoparticles in Regenerative Medicine 23
1.4 Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery System 24
1.4.1 Impact of Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery System 24
1.4.2 Journey of Nanoparticles-Based Delivery 24
1.4.3 Nanoparticles-Based Drug Release 25
1.4.4 Liposomes 26
1.4.5 Hybrid Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery System 26
1.5 Conclusions 27
1.6 Future Perspectives 27
References 28
2: Nanobiotechnology: Paving the Way to Personalized Medicine 31
2.1 Introduction 32
2.2 Nanobiotechnology in Nanotheranostics and Nanomedicine 34
2.3 Nanobiotechnology in P4 Medicine 35
2.4 Personalizing Nanomedicine 36
2.5 Omics and Nanobiotechnology 38
2.6 Clinically Viable Nanomedicine 40
2.7 Prospects and Challenges 41
2.8 Conclusions 43
References 43
Part II: NanoBioMedicine in Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy 47
3: Antibody-Targeted Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment 48
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Cancer 49
3.2.1 Solid Tumor 50
3.2.1.1 Characteristics of Solid Tumors 50
3.2.2 Nonsolid Cancer 51
3.2.2.1 Characteristics of Nonsolid Cancer 51
3.2.3 Tumor Microenvironment 51
3.2.4 Tumor Vasculature 52
3.3 Nanoparticles 53
3.3.1 Nanoparticle Variability 53
3.3.1.1 Gold Nanoparticles 53
3.3.1.2 Quantum Dots 54
3.3.1.3 Liposomes 54
3.3.1.4 Dendrimers 54
3.3.1.5 Polymeric Micelles 55
3.3.1.6 Polymeric Nanoparticles 55
3.3.2 Targeting Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment 55
3.4 Antibodies in Cancer Therapy 56
3.5 Antibody-Nanoparticle Bioconjugation 56
3.5.1 Physical Methods 57
3.5.2 Chemical Methods 58
3.5.2.1 Random Conjugation Methods 58
3.5.2.2 Site-Specific Conjugation Methods 58
3.5.3 Direct Coupling of Antibody and Nanoparticles 59
3.5.4 Conjugation of the Antibody to Nanoparticles Through Adaptor Molecules 60
3.6 Clinical Applications of Targeting Antibody-Nanoparticle Bioconjugate for Cancer Therapy 60
3.6.1 Targeting Solid Tumors 60
3.6.1.1 Breast Cancer 60
3.6.1.2 Cervical Cancer 61
3.6.1.3 Colorectal Cancer 62
3.6.1.4 Liver Cancer 62
3.6.1.5 Lung Cancer 62
3.6.1.6 Oral Cancer 63
3.6.1.7 Ovarian Cancer 63
3.6.1.8 Pancreatic Cancer 63
3.6.1.9 Prostate Cancer 64
3.6.1.10 Skin Cancer 64
3.6.1.11 Brain Tumors and Glioblastoma 64
3.6.2 Receptor-Based Targeting 64
3.6.2.1 EGFR 65
3.6.2.2 FGFR 65
3.6.2.3 HER2 66
3.6.2.4 VEGFR 66
3.6.2.5 TGF-? 67
3.6.3 Cancer Stem Cell Targeting 67
3.7 Potential of Targeted Antibody-Nanoparticle Bioconjugate for Cancer Therapy 68
3.8 Challenges of Targeted Antibody-Nanoparticle Bioconjugate for Cancer Therapy 69
3.9 Conclusions 70
References 71
4: Nanomedicine in Cancer Stem Cell Therapy 79
4.1 Introduction 80
4.2 CSCs and Drug Resistance 81
4.2.1 CSCs and How Does It Lead to Drug Resistance or Tumor Recurrence Condition?? 81
4.2.2 CSC Isolation and Characterization 82
4.2.3 Dysregulated Pathways in Cancer Stem Cell’s Survival 83
4.2.4 Molecular and Cellular Therapeutic Targets (Biomarkers) in Drug-Resistant CSCs 85
4.2.5 Current Therapies and Challenges in Cancer Stem Cell Therapy 87
4.3 Nanomedicine-Based Cancer Stem Cell Therapy 89
4.3.1 Importance and Urgent Utility of Nanomedicine in Cancer Stem Cell Therapy 89
4.3.2 Examples of Nanomedicine for Cancer Stem Cell Therapy 90
4.3.2.1 Nucleic Acid-Loaded Nanomedicines against CSCs (miRNA, siRNA, Aptamer) 91
4.3.2.2 Chemotherapeutic Drug-Loaded Nanomedicines Against CSCs 98
4.3.2.3 Targeted Therapy- and Immunotherapy-Based Nanomedicines against CSCs 99
4.3.2.4 Metabolic Target-Based Nanomedicines Against CSCs 106
4.4 Future Directions in Nanomedicine-Mediated Cancer Stem Cell Therapy 107
4.4.1 Synthesis of Highly Efficient Targeted Nanoparticles for CSC Therapy 108
4.4.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles with Deep Penetration Potentials for Effective CSC Therapy 109
4.4.3 Synthesis of Nanoparticles for Better Cellular Internalization for Effective CSC Therapy 110
4.4.4 Development of Nanoparticle-Mediated Genome Engineering for CSC Targeting 110
4.5 Conclusions 111
References 111
5: Anticancerous Activity of Transition Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 118
5.1 Introduction: Basics of Transition Metal Oxide Nanoparticle 118
5.2 Applications of Transition Metal Oxide Nanoparticle 120
5.3 Synthesis of Transition Metal Oxide Nanoparticle 120
5.4 Role as Potent Anticancer Agent 124
5.4.1 Copper Oxide (CuO and Cu2O) 125
5.4.2 Iron Oxide (Fe2O3 and Fe3O4) 126
5.4.3 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) 130
5.4.4 Nickel Oxide (NiO) 133
5.5 Cerium Oxide (CeO2) 134
5.6 Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) 137
5.6.1 Limitations 138
5.6.2 Future Perspectives 138
References 138
6: Latest Tools in Fight Against Cancer: Nanomedicines 149
6.1 Introduction 149
6.2 Diagnosis 150
6.2.1 Nanomedicine for Early Diagnosis of Cancers 151
6.2.2 Cancer Detection 152
6.2.3 Quantum Dots 152
6.2.4 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 153
6.2.4.1 Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 153
6.2.4.2 Gadolinium-Incorporated Nanoparticles 154
6.3 Treatment 156
6.3.1 Homeopathy and Cancer Therapy 156
6.3.2 Ayurveda and Cancer Therapy 157
6.3.3 Modern Therapy 157
6.3.3.1 Cancer Treatment 158
6.3.3.2 Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery Systems 158
Passive Targeting 159
Active Targeting 159
External Stimuli-Trigger Release 159
6.3.4 Multifunctional Nanomedicine 160
6.3.5 Nanomedicines 160
6.3.5.1 Natural Compound Nanocarriers 160
Lipid-Based Nanocarriers 161
Protein- and Peptide-Based Nanocarriers 161
Glycan-Based Nanocarriers 162
6.3.5.2 Virus Nanocarriers 163
Synthetic Polymer Nanocarriers 163
Drug Conjugates 163
Inorganic Nanoparticles 164
6.4 Opportunities and Challenges 165
6.5 Conclusions 168
References 168
Part III: Healthcare Applications of NanoBioMedicine 175
7: HIV: Biology to Treatment 176
7.1 Introduction 177
7.2 History 178
7.3 HIV Disease Burden: An Improvement 181
7.4 HIV: Molecular Biology 183
7.4.1 Envelop (Env) 184
7.4.2 Group-Specific Antigen (Gag) 185
7.4.3 Negative Factor (Nef) 185
7.4.4 Polymerase (Pol) 185
7.4.5 Regulator of Expression of Viral Proteins (Rev) 186
7.4.6 Transactivator of Transcription (Tat) 186
7.4.7 Viral Infectivity Factor (Vif) 186
7.4.8 Viral Protein R (Vpr) 186
7.4.9 Viral Protein U (Vpu) 187
7.4.10 Long Terminal Repeats (LTRs) 187
7.5 HIV Replication 187
7.5.1 Viral Attachment and Viral Entry (to the Cell) 189
7.5.2 Reverse Transcription 190
7.5.3 Integration of Pro-viral DNA 190
7.5.4 Transcription and Translation 191
7.5.5 Assembly and Release 191
7.6 Anti-retroviral Drugs 192
7.6.1 Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTIs) 192
7.6.2 Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NtRTIs) 194
7.6.3 Non-nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTIs) 194
7.6.4 Integrase Inhibitors (InIs) 194
7.6.5 Protease Inhibitors (PIs) 194
7.6.6 Fusion Inhibitors (FIs) 195
7.7 Anti-retroviral Treatment and HIV Drug Resistance 195
7.7.1 Highly Active Anti-retroviral Treatment (HAART) 196
7.7.2 Salvage Therapy 196
7.7.3 Drug Holiday 196
7.8 How to Test Anti-HIV Drug 197
7.9 MTT Assay for the Evaluation of Anti-HIV Effect of Anti-retroviral Drugs 197
7.10 Rationale of Each Essential Step 198
7.10.1 Growing or Culturing of HIV-Permissive Cells 198
7.10.2 Plating of HIV-Permissive Cells in 96-Well Plate 198
7.10.3 Thawing of HIV Stock 198
7.10.4 Preparation of Drug Dilution 199
7.10.5 Addition of Drug to the Wells 199
7.10.6 Incubation of Drug and HIV with Cells 199
7.10.7 Addition of MTT Dye 199
7.10.8 Stopping the MTT Reaction 199
7.10.9 Reading of Plate 200
7.10.10 Calculating the Data 200
7.11 Important Note 200
7.12 NeuroAIDS 200
7.13 Berlin Man: An Example for HIV Cure 202
References 204
Further Reading 205
8: Modern Approaches in Nanomedicine for NeuroAIDS and CNS Drug Delivery 207
8.1 Introduction 208
8.2 Epidemiology of NeuroAIDS 209
8.3 Challenges for the Treatment 210
8.4 Nanotechnology-Based Approaches for the Management of NeuroAIDS 210
8.4.1 Polymeric Nano-ARTs 212
8.4.2 Dendrimer Nano-ARTs 212
8.4.3 Vesicular Nano-ARTs 213
8.4.4 Lipid Nano-ARTs 213
8.4.5 Magnetic Nano-ARTs 214
8.4.6 Cell-Based Nano-ARTs 214
8.4.7 Nanogels for ARV Delivery 215
8.5 Conclusions 216
8.6 Future Perspectives 216
References 217
9: Biomedical Applications of Viral Nanoparticles in Vaccine Therapy 220
9.1 Introduction 221
9.2 VNPs in Vaccine Therapy 222
9.2.1 Criteria for Virus Selection 223
9.2.2 Types of Viruses Used in VNPs 225
9.3 Production of VNPs 225
9.3.1 Bacterial Expression 225
9.3.2 Yeast and Baculovirus Expression 226
9.3.3 Plant-Based Expression 226
9.4 Antigen Expression by Capsid Modification 227
9.5 Role of VNPs in Immune Response 229
9.5.1 Humoral Response 230
9.5.2 Cellular Immune Response 231
9.5.3 Immunomodulators and Adjuvants 232
9.6 Diseases Targeted Using Plant VNPs 233
9.6.1 Vaccines for Infectious Diseases 233
9.6.2 Vaccines for Cancer 234
9.6.3 Vaccines for Neurological Diseases and Addiction 234
9.7 Future Perspectives 235
References 235
10: Advances in Phage Inspired Nanoscience Based Therapy 244
10.1 Overview 244
10.1.1 Therapy 244
10.1.2 Phage Therapy 245
10.1.3 Phage Therapy Today 246
10.2 The History, Ecology, Structure, Functions and Properties of Bacteriophage 246
10.2.1 Historic Context: Discovery and Early Research 246
10.2.2 Basic Biology and Ecology of Bacteriophages 247
10.2.3 Phages Might Be an Alternative for Antibiotics 250
10.3 General Approaches for Obtaining Assembled Phage Therapy Particles Phage Therapy and Nanotechnology
10.3.1 Virus-Template Nanomaterials 251
10.3.2 Nanotechnological Engineering of Bacteriophage T4 Component Proteins 252
10.3.3 Head 252
10.3.4 Sheath 253
10.3.5 Tail Fibers 254
10.3.6 Cell Penetration Occurs Through Protein Needle Motifs 254
10.3.7 Penetration 254
10.4 Development of Nanomaterials with Bacteriophage Chemical and Genetic Strategies 257
10.4.1 Phage Display Technology and Phage Peptide Library 258
10.5 Phage Therapy and Nanomedicine 258
10.5.1 Phage Display Technology vis-a-vis Breast Cancer 258
10.6 Artificial Bio-nanomachines, a Recent Design Based on Protein Needles from Bacteriophage T4Biophys 259
10.6.1 Association, Engineering, and Implementation of Virus-Based Protein Nanoparticles 259
10.7 Phage Therapy and the Future 260
References 261
Part IV: NanoBioMedicine in Diagnosis and Therapy 265
11: Diagnosis of Tuberculosis: Nanodiagnostics Approaches 266
11.1 Introduction 267
11.2 Diagnosis of Tuberculosis 268
11.2.1 Conventional Methods 269
11.2.2 Immunological Methods 269
11.2.3 New Diagnostic Methods 269
11.3 Diagnostic Gaps Between Existing Technologies and Its Unmet Clinical Need 269
11.4 Nanotechnology 273
11.4.1 Nanoparticles 273
11.4.2 Types of Nanoparticle-Based Platforms 274
11.4.3 Nanoparticle-Based Diagnostics 276
11.4.4 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNPs)-Based Diagnostics for TB 276
11.4.5 AuNP-Mediated Dipstick Assay 278
11.4.6 Silica Nanoparticles-Based Detection 278
11.4.7 Magnetic Nanoparticles-Based Detection 278
11.4.8 Quantum Dots-Based Detection System 279
11.4.9 Magnetic Barcode Assays 280
11.4.10 Biosensors-Based Detection System 280
11.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 281
References 282
12: Molecular Mechanisms of Drug Resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Role of Nanoparticles Against Multi-drug-Resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB) 289
12.1 Introduction 290
12.2 Mechanisms of Drug Resistance 290
12.2.1 Molecular Mechanism of Resistance to First-Line Drugs 292
12.2.1.1 Isoniazid (INH) 292
12.2.1.2 Rifampicin (RIF) 296
12.2.1.3 Pyrazinamide (PZA) 297
12.2.1.4 Ethambutol (EMB) 297
12.2.1.5 Streptomycin (STR) 298
12.2.2 Mechanism of Resistance to Second-Line Drugs 299
12.2.2.1 Fluoroquinolones (FQs) 299
12.2.2.2 Aminoglycosides 303
12.2.2.3 Ethionamide (ETA) 304
12.2.2.4 D-Cycloserine (CYS) 304
12.2.2.5 Peptides (Viomycin and Capreomycin) 304
12.2.2.6 Para Aminosalicylic Acid (PAS) 305
12.3 Nanoparticles 305
12.3.1 Natural Nanoparticles 306
12.3.2 Microbial Nanoparticles 306
12.3.3 Plants Nanoparticles 307
12.4 Nanotechnological Approach as Antimicrobial Activity 308
12.5 Mode of Action of Metal-Based Nanoparticles 309
12.6 Nanoparticles Conjugated with Antibiotics 312
12.7 Conclusion and Prospects 313
References 314
13: Nanophytotherapeutic Potential of Essential Oils Against Candida Infections 319
13.1 Introduction 320
13.1.1 Human Fungal Infections 320
13.1.2 Essential Oils and Its Significance 320
13.2 Essential Oil Classifications 321
13.3 Mechanism of Action of Compounds in Essential Oils 327
13.3.1 Essential Oils Targeting Cell Wall Integrity 327
13.3.2 Essential Oils Targeting Cell Signaling 329
13.3.3 Essential Oils Targeting Virulence Traits 330
13.4 Essential Oils in Comparison to Known Antifungals 331
13.5 Conclusions 332
References 332
Part V: Intersection of NanoBioMedicine with Therapeutics and Diagnostics 336
14: Emerging Trends in Nanotheranostics 337
14.1 Introduction 338
14.2 Components of a Theranostic System 339
14.3 Applications of Theranostic Systems 341
14.4 Features/Characteristics of an Ideal Theranostics System: 341
14.5 Platforms Employed for Nanomedicine Development 341
14.6 Inorganic Platforms 342
14.6.1 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) 342
14.6.2 Magnetic Nanoparticles (MNPs) 342
14.6.3 Quantum Dots (QDs) 342
14.7 Carbon-Based Platforms 343
14.7.1 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 343
14.7.2 Carbon Dots (CDs) 343
14.8 Polymeric Platforms 343
14.8.1 Dendrimers 343
14.8.2 Polymeric Nanoparticles 344
14.9 Lipid-Based Platforms 344
14.9.1 Liposomes 344
14.9.2 Micelles 345
14.10 Therapy 345
14.10.1 Chemotherapy 345
14.10.2 Photothermal Therapy 349
14.10.3 Photodynamic Therapy 351
14.10.4 Radiotherapy 354
14.10.5 Image-Guided Therapy 355
14.10.6 Positron Emission Tomography and Computed Tomography 356
14.10.7 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 359
14.10.8 Optical Imaging (OI) 361
14.10.9 Multimodal Imaging 362
14.11 Perspective 363
14.11.1 Nanotheranostics for Precision Medicine 363
References 365
Part VI: Tools and Techniques in NanoBioMedicine 371
15: Nanodevices: The Future of Medical Diagnostics 372
15.1 Biomedical Devices: An Introduction 373
15.2 Role of Nanotechnology in the Modernization of Biomedical Devices 374
15.3 Development of Biosensors for Medical Diagnostics 376
15.4 Fabrication of Nanostructure-Based Highly Sensitive Platforms 379
15.5 Importance of Nanobiosensors in Clinical Diagnostics 382
15.6 Future Aspects of Nanobiosensors 385
References 386
16: Nanobiosensor: Current Trends and Applications 390
16.1 Introduction 391
16.2 Signal Amplification for Nanobiosensing 393
16.3 Nanobiosensors for Biomedical Applications 394
16.3.1 Identification of Bacterial Pathogens 394
16.3.2 Identification of Viruses 395
16.3.3 Detection of Cancer 396
16.3.4 Nanosensor-Based Breath Analyzers 397
16.4 Nanobiochip: A New Paradigm in Lab-on-a-Chip Technology 397
16.4.1 Salient Features of Nanobiochip 398
16.4.2 Silicon Nanobiochip 398
16.4.3 Carbon Nanotube (CNT)-Based Biochips 399
16.4.4 Nanolithography-Based Biochip Construction 400
16.4.5 Nanoskiving 400
16.4.6 Nanofluidics-Based Biochips 400
16.4.7 Nanonose for Detection of Human Ailment 400
16.5 Nanobiosensors for Pollution Detection 401
16.5.1 Nanosensors for Air Pollution Detection 401
16.5.2 Nanomaterial-Based Sensors for Water Pollutant Detection 401
16.5.3 Nanobiosensors for Detection of Soil Pollutants 402
16.5.4 Nanobiosensor in Agriculture Sector 403
16.5.4.1 Nanobiosensor in Precision Farming 403
16.5.4.2 Nanobiosensor for Detection of Residual Agrochemicals and Pathogens in Food 404
16.6 Future Perspectives 406
References 406
17: Nanoparticles as Potential Endocrine Disruptive Chemicals 411
17.1 Introduction 412
17.2 Mechanism of Action of EDCs 414
17.2.1 Hormone Sensitizer 414
17.2.2 Changes in DNA Methylation or Histone Modifications 415
17.2.3 EDCs That Cause Genomic Instability by Interfering with the Spindle Fiber 415
17.3 Nanoparticles and Endocrine Disruption 415
17.4 Commonly Used Nanoparticles and Their Impact on Health and Hormonal Functions 416
17.4.1 Silica NPs 416
17.4.2 Palladium (Pd) NPs 418
17.4.3 Gold NPs (AuNPs) 418
17.4.4 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) 419
17.4.5 Carbon-Based NPs 419
17.5 Diseases Associated with Nanoparticle Exposure 420
17.5.1 Male and Female Reproduction 420
17.5.2 Female Reproductive System 421
17.5.3 Male Reproductive System 422
17.5.4 Fetal Development 422
17.5.5 Cancer 424
17.5.6 Neurological Disorders 424
17.6 Conclusion 425
References 425
Part VII: NanoBioMedicine: Advanced Medical Devices 430
18: Techniques to Understand Mycobacterial Lipids and Use of Lipid-Based Nanoformulations for Tuberculosis Management 431
18.1 Introduction 432
18.2 MTB Lipids 432
18.3 Total Lipid Extraction 432
18.3.1 Folch Method 433
18.3.2 Modified Folch Method 433
18.3.3 Bligh and Dyer Method 433
18.3.4 Chandramouli Method 434
18.4 Lipid Isolation Methodologies 435
18.4.1 Fatty Acids 435
18.4.1.1 Role in Pathogenesis 435
18.4.1.2 Mycolic Acid Isolation Protocols 435
18.4.1.3 TDM Isolation Protocols 437
18.4.2 Glycerolipids 437
18.4.2.1 Role in Pathogenesis 438
18.4.2.2 TAG Isolation Protocol 438
18.4.3 Glycerophospholipids 439
18.4.3.1 Role in Pathogenesis 439
18.4.3.2 PIM Isolation Protocols 440
18.4.4 Saccharolipids 441
18.4.4.1 Role in Pathogenesis 441
18.4.5 Polyketides 442
18.4.5.1 Role in Pathogenesis 442
18.4.5.2 PDIM Extraction 443
18.4.6 Prenol Lipids 443
18.4.6.1 Role in Pathogenesis 444
18.4.6.2 Prenol Isolation Protocol 444
18.5 Lipid-Based Nanoformulations 444
18.5.1 Nanoemulsion 444
18.5.2 Solid Lipid Microparticles (SLMs)/Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) 445
18.5.3 Nanostructured Lipid Carrier (NLCs) 445
18.5.4 Liposomes 445
18.5.5 Niosomes 446
18.6 Conclusions 446
References 446
19: Nanomaterial-Assisted Mass Spectrometry: An Evolving Cutting-Edge Technique 450
19.1 Introduction to Mass Spectrometry 451
19.1.1 Chromatographic Separation 452
19.1.2 Ionization Methods 452
19.1.2.1 ESI 452
19.1.2.2 MALDI 453
19.1.3 MALDI Matrices 455
19.2 Nanomaterials and Laser Desorption Ionization (LDI) 456
19.3 Mass Spectrometry Imaging (MSI) 457
19.4 Concluding Remarks 458
References 459
Part VIII: NanoBioMedicine: Risk Assessment and Management 462
20: Nanotoxicology in Medicine 463
20.1 Introduction 464
20.2 Mechanism of Nanotoxicity 465
20.2.1 Molecular Toxicity of Nano-Based Drugs 465
20.2.1.1 Oxidative Stress and Inflammation Associated with ROS Production 466
20.2.1.2 ROS Production Leading to Cyto- and Genetoxicity 466
20.2.2 Tissue Toxicity of Nano-Based Drugs 467
20.3 Biodistribution of Nano-Based Drugs in Terms of Toxicity 467
20.4 Safety Assessment for Nano-Based Drugs 468
20.5 Conclusions 469
20.6 Future Perspectives 469
References 470
21: Cellular and Organismal Toxicity of Nanoparticles and Its Associated Health Concerns 472
21.1 Introduction 474
21.2 Cellular Nanotoxicity 478
21.2.1 The Organismal Nanotoxicity 481
21.3 Nanoparticles Affecting the Health 483
21.3.1 Nanoparticles Linked to Cancer Development 483
21.3.2 Nanoparticles Linked to Diabetes 484
21.3.3 Nanoparticles Linked to Cardiovascular Diseases 484
21.3.4 Nanoparticles Linked to Liver Diseases 485
21.3.5 Nanoparticles Linked to Neurodegeneration 485
21.4 Conclusions 486
References 486
Part IX: NanoBioMedicine: Clinical Translation and Commercialization 493
22: Opportunities in Clinical Translation and Commercialization of Nanomedicine 494
22.1 Introduction 495
22.2 Nanomaterials for Nanomedicine 496
22.3 Metallic Nanoparticles 496
22.3.1 Nanoparticles for Diagnosis and Imaging 497
22.3.2 Nanoparticles for Cancer Therapy 498
22.3.3 Nanoparticles as Antimicrobial Agent 499
22.3.4 Nanoparticles for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine 502
22.4 Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery 502
22.5 Nanoparticles for Gene Therapy 503
22.6 Organic and Polymeric Nanomaterials for Medicinal Use 504
22.7 Nanoparticle-Based Medicines Approved for Clinical Trials and Applications 505
22.8 Commercialization and Challenges in Nanomedicine 505
22.9 Conclusions 507
References 508