Solar Cells (eBook)

Preface I 5
Preface II 7
Contents 8
Synthesis and Processing of Nanomaterials 10
1 Fundamentals of Nanomaterials 10
1.1 Introduction to Nanomaterials 10
1.2 History of Nanomaterials 11
1.3 Nanomaterials Are All Around Us 12
2 Properties of Nanomaterials 14
2.1 Surface Area of Nanomaterials 14
2.2 Quantum Confinement 15
2.3 Structural Properties of Nanomaterials 15
2.4 Chemical Properties of Nanomaterials 15
2.5 Magnetic Properties of Nanomaterials 16
2.6 Optical Properties of Nanomaterials 17
2.7 Electronic Properties of Nanomaterials 18
3 Common Synthesis Techniques 18
3.1 Sol–Gel Technique 19
3.2 Co-precipitation Technique 21
3.3 Green Synthesis Technique 22
3.4 Microwaves Assisted Synthesis 22
3.5 Plasma Synthesis Technique 23
3.6 Simple Heating Method 24
3.7 Solvent Evaporation Technique 25
3.8 Mechanochemical Process 26
3.9 Sonochemical Technique 27
3.10 Chemical Vapor Deposition Technique 28
4 Applications of Nanomaterials 30
5 Conclusions 31
References 31
Perspective of Nanomaterials in the Performance of Solar Cells 33
1 Introduction 34
2 The Generations and Classifications of Solar Cells 35
2.1 Solar Cell Technologies 35
2.2 Classifications of Third-Generations Solar Cells 37
3 Nanomaterials- and Nanocomposites-Based Solar Cells 39
4 Central Features of Nanomaterials 43
5 Focal Points of Nanostructured Materials 43
6 Performance Parameters of Nanomaterials-Based Solar Cells 48
6.1 Stability 48
6.2 Light Harvesting Efficiency 49
6.3 Higher Surface Area 50
6.4 Recombination Rate 52
7 Challenges in Nanostructured Solar Cells 53
8 Summary and Future Perspectives 54
References 55
Materials for Solar Cell Applications: An Overview of TiO2, ZnO, Upconverting Organic and Polymer-Based Solar Cells 63
1 Introduction 63
2 Synthesis of Materials 66
2.1 Synthesis of Material-Based (TiO2, ZnO) Solar Cells 66
3 Rare Earth-Based Materials 73
3.1 Upconversion Rare Earth Materials for Photovoltaic Applications 73
4 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 74
5 Organic and Polymer Solar Cells 77
6 Summary 81
References 81
Recent Advances in Solar Cells 87
1 Introduction 87
2 Basic Concepts to Solar Cells 88
3 Inorganic Photovoltaic Devices 90
3.1 Perovskite-Based Solar Cells 92
3.2 Advanced Materials for Charges Transport in Solar Cells 96
3.3 Application of SWCNTs in Perovskite-Based Solar Cells 102
3.4 Stability Issues in Inorganic Solar Cells 106
4 Organic Solar Cells 110
4.1 Main Electron Donor/Acceptor Molecules Used in OSCs 112
5 Tandem Solar Cells 118
6 Conclusion 121
References 122
Photovoltaic Materials Design by Computational Studies: Metal Sulfides 131
1 Introduction 131
2 Metal Oxides 132
3 Sulfides 134
4 Case Studies 135
4.1 Cu2S 136
4.2 CuBiW2O8:S 139
5 Summary and Conclusions 142
References 142
Photovoltaic-Based Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Characterization 147
1 Introduction 147
2 Classical Review of Photovoltaic (PV) Cell 150
3 Architecture-Based Classification of Nanomaterial 151
3.1 Nanowires 151
3.2 Nanotubes 152
3.3 Nanopillars 153
3.4 Nanorods 155
4 Inorganic-Based Nanomaterials for Solar Cells 155
5 Organic-Based Nanomaterials for Solar Cells 157
6 Nanomaterials for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 158
7 Nanomaterials for Perovskite Solar Cells 158
8 Nanomaterials-Based Photovoltaic Cells Efficiency 159
9 Solar Cell Characterization 160
10 Conclusion 162
References 162
Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis and Application in Solar Cells 167
1 Carbon-Based Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 167
2 Structures and Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 168
2.1 Types of Carbon Nanotubes 170
2.2 Single-Wall Nanotubes 172
2.3 Multiwall Nanotubes 173
3 Mechanism of Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes 174
3.1 Growth Mechanism 174
3.2 Reaction Mechanism 174
3.3 Catalyst-Free Growth 176
4 Synthesis Techniques of Carbon Nanotubes 176
4.1 Arc Discharge Method 176
4.2 Laser Ablation Method 179
4.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition Method 179
5 Applications and Functionalization of CNTs 180
6 World Power Demand and CNT Solar Cells 181
7 CNT-Based Perovskite Solar Cells 182
8 Photoactive Side of Predominantly Semiconducting Nanotubes 184
9 CNT Dispersion and Thin Film Formation 187
10 Heterojunction and Environmental Stability of CNT-Based Solar Cells 188
11 Conclusions 189
References 189
Basic Concepts, Engineering, and Advances in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 193
1 Introduction 194
2 Basic Concept of DSSC 195
3 Components of DSSC 198
4 Device Construction of DSSC 202
5 Basic Characterizations for DSSC 204
6 Factors Influencing the Efficiency of DSSC 206
7 Engineering and Advances in DSSC 209
7.1 Role of Nanomaterial Properties in DSSC 210
7.2 Dyes and Electrolytes Compatibility in DSSC 213
7.3 Catalytic Ability of Different Counter Electrodes 216
7.4 Role of Plasmonic Nanostructures in Improving the Efficiency of DSSC 217
7.5 Tandem Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell 222
8 Merits and Demerits of DSSCs 226
9 Summary and Future Directions 231
References 232
Quantum Dot Solar Cells 242
1 Introduction 242
2 Solar Cell and Generations of Solar Cell 243
2.1 First-Generation Solar Cell 244
2.2 Second-Generation Solar Cells 245
2.3 Third-Generation Solar Cells 246
3 Quantum Dots 247
4 Quantum Dot Solar Cells 249
4.1 Metal-Semiconductor Junction Solar Cell (Schottky Cell) 250
4.2 Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells 251
4.3 p-I-n Quantum Dot Solar Cell 252
4.4 Polymer-Semiconductor Structure Configuration 253
4.5 Depleted Heterojunction Quantum Dots Solar Cells 254
5 Material Selection in Quantum Dot Solar Cells 254
5.1 CdSe-Based Quantum Dot Solar Cell 254
5.2 CdS-Based Quantum Dot Solar Cell 255
5.3 PbS-Based Quantum Dot Solar Cell 257
5.4 InP-Based Quantum Dots Solar Cells 258
5.5 Graphene Quantum Dot-Based Solar Cell 258
5.6 Other Quantum Dot Solar Cell 260
6 Conclusion 261
References 262
Organometal Halide Perovskite-Based Materials and Their Applications in Solar Cell Devices 266
1 Introduction 266
2 Perovskite Material for Solar Cell Applications 268
3 Compositional Aspect of Perovskite Material 270
3.1 ‘A’ Site 270
3.2 ‘M’ Site 271
3.3 ‘X’ Site 272
4 Structure, Phase Transformation and Electronic Characteristics of Perovskite Materials 273
5 Band-gap Tuning of Perovskite Materials 274
6 Construction of Perovskite Solar Cells 277
6.1 Preparation Methods for Perovskite Films 277
6.2 Device Architecture and Working Principle 279
7 Challenges Related with the PSCs and Their Potential Solutions 282
7.1 J-V Hysteresis 282
7.2 Long-Term Stability 284
8 Conclusions 285
References 285
Effect of Oxygen Vacancies in Electron Transport Layer for Perovskite Solar Cells 289
1 Introduction 289
2 Formation of Oxygen Vacancies During Fabrication 291
2.1 Oxygen Quantity 291
2.2 Annealing 292
2.3 Fabrication Method 294
2.4 Doping 295
3 Properties of Metal Oxide with Oxygen Vacancies 297
3.1 Structural Properties 297
3.2 Wettability 298
3.3 Optical Properties 299
3.4 Electrical Properties 301
4 Effect of Oxygen Vacancies Towards Device Performance 302
4.1 Efficiency 302
4.2 Hysteresis 303
4.3 Stability 305
5 Conclusion 306
References 307
Solar Cells and Optoelectronic Devices in Space 312
1 Introduction 312
1.1 Radiations in Space 313
2 Radiation Environment and Devices in Space 314
2.1 Displacement Damage Mechanisms 316
2.2 Ionization Damage Mechanisms 316
3 Interaction with Matter 318
3.1 Photoelectric Effect 319
3.2 Photo Fission of Nuclei 320
3.3 Compton Scatterings 320
3.4 Dose Rate Effects 321
4 Influence of Gamma Radiations on the Solar Cells, LED’s and Photodiodes 321
4.1 Effect on Solar Cells 321
4.2 Effect on Photodiodes and LED’s 323
5 Conclusion and Future Prospectus 324
References 325
Multi-junction (III–V) Solar Cells: From Basics to Advanced Materials Choices 329
1 Introduction 330
1.1 Limiting Factors Involved in Multi-junction Solar Cells 331
2 Multi-junction Solar Cells Design 332
2.1 GaAs/Si Tandem Solar Cell 333
3 Multi-junction Solar Cell Performance 334
3.1 Current Density–Voltage Curves 335
3.2 Band Gap Conversion Efficiency 337
3.3 Spectral Distribution Effects 338
3.4 Anti-reflection Coating in Multi-junction Solar Cells 340
4 Material Choice and Growth 343
4.1 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition 344
4.2 Gallium Arsenide Solar Cells 345
4.3 Gallium Indium Phosphide Solar Cells 345
4.4 Germanium Solar Cells 347
5 Future Consideration for Developing Advanced Multi-junction Solar Cells 348
References 350