Self-standing Substrates (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 7
1 Self-standing Nanoarchitectures 9
Abstract 9
1 Introduction 10
1.1 Dimensions of Nanomaterials 11
1.2 Difference Between Nanostructures and Bulk Structures 13
1.3 Fabrication Methods 13
1.4 How to Look at Nanostructures? 15
2 Nanoparticles 17
2.1 Noble Metal Nanoparticles 18
2.2 Core-Shell Type Nanoparticles 19
2.3 Dendrimers 20
2.4 Fullerenes 22
3 Nanowires 23
3.1 Metallic Nanowires 23
3.2 Noble Metals 24
3.3 Non-noble Metallic Nanowires 24
3.4 Oxide Nanowires 25
3.5 Non-oxide Semiconducting Nanowires 26
3.6 Organic Nanowires 28
3.7 Superconducting Nanowires 29
4 Nanowalls 30
4.1 Semiconducting Nanowalls 30
4.2 Oxide Nanowalls 31
4.3 Carbon-Based Nanowalls 32
5 Nanopores 32
5.1 Porous Anodic Aluminium Oxides 33
5.2 Porous Anodic Titanium Oxide 35
6 Nanotubes 36
6.1 Carbon Nanotubes 37
6.2 From 1st to 4th Generation of TiO2 NTs 40
6.3 ZnO Nanotubes 42
7 Mimetic Nanomaterials 44
7.1 Nanotrees 44
7.2 Nanoflowers 45
7.3 Nanourchins 48
8 Heterostructures 49
8.1 Quantum Nanodots 50
8.2 Dimensional Hybrid Nanostructures 51
References 57
2 Application of Self-supported Materials for Photo and Photoelectrocatalysis 65
Abstract 65
1 Introduction 66
2 Fabrication and Modification of Self-support Nanostructure Photocatalyst/Photoelectrode 67
2.1 Electrodeposition 67
2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition 69
2.3 Hydrothermal and Solvothermal 72
2.4 Other Methods 75
3 Recent Application of Self-support Nanostructure Photocatalyst/Photoelectrode 77
3.1 Efficient Wastewater Treatment with Self-supported Photocatalyst 77
3.2 Enhanced PEC Water-Splitting Reaction with Highly Photoactive Self-supported Photocatalyst/Photoelectrode 80
3.3 Reduction of CO2 to Valuable Products with Highly Photoactive Self-supported Photocatalyst or Photoelectrode 83
4 Conclusion 86
References 87
3 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Substrates: Fabrication, Properties, and Applications 91
Abstract 91
1 Introduction 92
2 Electromagnetic Enhancement Contribution to SERS 94
3 Chemical Enhancement Contribution to SERS 96
4 SERS Is Simply an Enhancement of the Raman Effect? 96
5 HOT Spots 97
6 Why Metals Are Preferred for SERS? 99
7 SERS Substrate Fabrication Approaches 101
7.1 Metallic Nanoparticle-Based SERS Substrate Fabrication 102
7.2 Fabrication of the Nanostructures on the Substrate Via Lithography 104
7.3 2D SERS Substrates 108
7.4 3D SERS Substrates 110
8 Applications of SERS Substrates 110
8.1 Biosensing and Bioimaging Applications 111
8.2 Food Safety Evaluation 112
8.3 SERS Technique for Environmental Pollutants 114
8.4 SERS Technique in Forensic Science 114
8.5 SERS in Art and Archaeology 115
9 Conclusion and Future Outlook 116
Acknowledgements 117
References 117
4 Ultrafiltration Membrane for Water Treatment 127
Abstract 127
1 Introduction and History 128
2 UF Membrane Type, Characteristics and Preparation 131
2.1 Polymeric Membrane 131
2.2 Ceramic Membrane 134
3 Application of UF Membrane in Industrial Influent 138
3.1 Textile Industry 138
3.2 Dairy Industry 139
3.3 Beverage Industry 140
3.4 Petrochemical Industries 143
4 Application of UF Membrane in Industrial Effluent 145
4.1 Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Industries 145
4.2 Food Processing Industries 146
4.3 Iron and Steel Industries 148
5 Conclusion and Future Direction 149
References 150
5 Conducting Polymer Membranes and Their Applications 154
Abstract 154
1 Introduction 154
1.1 Conductive Polymer Background 156
1.2 Conductive Polymers and Their Mechanism of Conductivity 158
1.3 Synthesis of Conducting Polymers 160
1.3.1 Fabrication Techniques Conductive Polymer Composites 160
Solution Mixing Techniques 160
In situ Fabrication Technique 161
Melt Processing 162
Latex Technology of Fabrication 162
2 Applications of Conductive Composites 163
2.1 Polymer Materials for Sensor Application 163
2.1.1 Ion Sensor 164
2.1.2 pH Sensor 164
2.1.3 Gas Sensors 165
2.1.4 Stress Sensors 165
2.2 Conducting Membrane for Wastewater Treatment 170
3 Conclusions 171
Acknowledgements 172
References 172
6 Self-supported Electrocatalysts 184
Abstract 184
1 Introduction 184
1.1 Electrocatalysts 186
1.2 What Is ‘Self-supported Catalyst’? 188
1.3 Factors Affecting the Electrocatalytic Activity of Self-supported Catalyst 189
1.3.1 Size 189
1.3.2 Shape 190
1.3.3 Crystalline Facets 190
1.3.4 Composition of the Catalyst 191
1.3.5 Integration of Catalyst and Electrode 191
2 Role of Electrocatalysts in Energy Applications 191
2.1 Evaluating Parameters of Electrocatalysis 192
2.1.1 Onset Potential and Overpotential 193
2.1.2 Tafel Slope 193
2.1.3 Faradaic Efficiency (FE) 194
2.1.4 Electrochemically Active Surface Area (ECSA) 194
2.1.5 Exchange Current Density (Jo) 195
3 Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) 196
4 Oxygen Evolution Reaction (OER) 200
5 Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) 204
6 CO2 Reduction Reaction 208
7 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) 209
8 Future Aspects and Conclusion 210
Author Declaration 211
References 211
7 Conductive Polymer Based Flexible Supercapacitor 217
Abstract 217
1 Introduction 217
2 Different Components of a Supercapacitor 219
3 Materials for Supercapacitor 220
3.1 Conductive Polymer Based Flexible Supercapacitor 220
3.1.1 Polyaniline Based Flexible Supercapacitor 221
3.1.2 Polypyrrole Based Flexible Supercapacitor 224
3.1.3 Polythiophene and Its Derivatives Based Flexible Supercapacitor 232
4 Summary 236
References 236
8 Self-healing Substrates: Fabrication, Properties and Applications 240
Abstract 240
1 Introduction 240
2 Self-healing Substrates and Their Healing Chemistries 242
2.1 Polymeric Substrates 243
2.1.1 Thermoplastic Polymers 243
Molecular Inter-diffusion 244
Photo-Induced Healing 245
Recombination of Chain Ends 246
Reversible Bond Formation 246
Living Polymer Approach 247
Anisotropic Systems Self-repairing 247
2.1.2 Thermoset Polymers 248
Hollow Fiber Approach 249
Microencapsulation Approach 250
Microvascular Networks 252
Thermally Reversible Cross-Linked Polymers 253
Thermoplastic Additives 253
Chain Rearrangement 253
Metal-Ion Mediated Healing 253
Shape Memory Polymers (SMPs) 253
Swelling of Polymer Matrix 255
2.2 Ceramic Substrates 255
2.2.1 Microencapsulation 255
2.2.2 Dynamic Oxidation/Diffusion 256
Oxidation of an A Element in a MAX Phase System 256
2.2.3 Self-healing Using NPs Additives 256
2.3 Metallic Substrates 256
2.3.1 Precipitation of Solute Atoms to Fill Voids and Micro-cracks 257
2.3.2 Low Melting Point Alloys as Reinforcement 257
2.3.3 Additives 257
2.3.4 Electro Healing 257
2.4 Concrete Substrates 258
2.4.1 Hollow Fiber and Microcapsule Encapsulation 258
2.4.2 Bacteria 258
2.4.3 Shape-Memory Polymers (SMPs) 259
2.4.4 Super-Absorbent Polymers 259
2.4.5 Additives to Aid Hydration of Concrete 259
2.5 Asphalt Substrates 259
3 Preparation of Self-healing Substrates 259
3.1 In Situ Emulsification Polymerization 260
3.2 Interfacial Polymerization 260
3.3 Pickering Emulsion Templating 260
3.4 Mini-emulsion Polymerization 261
3.5 Solvent Evaporation/Solvent Extraction 261
3.6 Sol-Gel 262
3.7 Click Chemistry 262
4 Applications of Self-healing Substrates 262
4.1 Electronic Devices 262
4.2 Food Packaging 264
4.3 Textiles 264
4.4 Medical Applications 265
4.5 Construction/Coatings 266
4.6 Water Treatment 267
5 Conclusion and Outlook 268
Acknowledgements 268
References 268
9 Self-supported Materials for Flexible/Stretchable Sensors 273
Abstract 273
1 Introduction 273
2 Fundamental of Flexible/Stretchable Sensors 275
2.1 Types and Transduction Mechanisms of Flexible/Stretchable Sensors 276
2.1.1 Piezoresistive Sensors 276
2.1.2 Piezocapacitive Sensors 277
2.1.3 Piezoelectric Sensors 277
2.1.4 Triboelectric Sensors 278
2.2 Key Parameters for Flexible/Stretchable Sensors 278
3 Functional Materials and Applications of Sensors 279
3.1 Substrate Materials 279
3.2 Representative Self-supporting Sensing Materials 280
3.2.1 Metallic Materials and Inorganic Semiconductors 281
Metallic Nanomaterials 281
Inorganic Semiconductors 283
3.2.2 Carbon Nanomaterials 283
CNT 284
Graphene and Derivative 287
3.2.3 Conductive Polymers 290
3.3 Flexible Electrodes 292
4 Conclusions and Outlook 293
Acknowledgements 294
References 295
10 Graphene-Based Materials for Flexible Supercapacitors 301
Abstract 301
1 Introduction 302
2 Flexible Graphene Based Composites 304
2.1 Electrode Material 304
2.1.1 Synthesis Approach 304
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 304
Electrodeposition 305
In-Situ Polymerization 305
Chemical Precipitation Method 306
Direct Coating 306
2.1.2 Fabrication of Electrode for Symmetric Supercapacitor 307
Electrodes with Additives (Carbonaceous or Pseudo-Capacitive Materials) 307
Electrodes with Binders 308
Binderless Electrodes 309
Pure Graphene Electrode 309
Conducting Polymer/Graphene Composites 311
Metal Oxides or Hydroxides/Graphene Composite 312
Graphene Based Ternary Composite 314
2.1.3 Asymmetric Supercapacitor 316
2.2 Electrolyte 316
2.3 Architectural Variations 318
3 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 319
References 321
11 Free-Standing Graphene Materials for Supercapacitors 331
Abstract 331
1 Introduction 332
1.1 Classification of Graphene Based Nanomaterials 333
1.2 Synthesis of Graphene Based Nanomaterials 334
1.3 Synthesis of Free Standing Graphene 335
1.4 Characterization of Free Standing Graphene 337
2 What Is Supercapacitor? 338
3 Role of Free Standing Graphene as Supercapacitor 342
3.1 Graphene Foam 342
3.2 Graphene Films 343
3.3 Graphene Monoliths 346
3.4 Graphene Aerogel 348
4 Conclusion and Future Aspects 349
Author Declaration 350
References 350
12 Organic Electrode Material for Sodium-Ion Batteries 356
Abstract 356
1 Introduction 357
2 Molecular Design of Electrodes for Organic Sodium Ion Batteries 358
2.1 Organic Electrodes Constituting of C=O Based Reaction 358
2.1.1 Carbonyl Compounds 358
2.1.2 Polyimides 359
2.1.3 Quinones 361
2.1.4 Carboxylates 362
2.1.5 Anhydrides 362
2.2 Organic Electrodes Based on Doping Reaction 362
2.2.1 Organic Radical Polymers 362
2.2.2 Conductive Polymers 363
2.2.3 Conjugated Micro Porous Polymers 364
2.2.4 Organometallic Polymers 365
2.3 Organic Electrode Constituting of C=N Based Reaction 365
2.3.1 Schiff Bases 365
2.3.2 Pteridine Derivatives 366
3 Electrode Design for Sodium Ion Batteries 366
3.1 Molecular Engineering 367
3.2 Polymerization 368
3.3 Combining with Carbon (Carbon Hybrid) 368
3.4 Electrolyte Modification 368
4 Future Challenges 368
References 369