Ice Adhesion

Kashmiri Lal Mittal was employed by the IBM Corporation from 1972 through 1993. Currently, he is teaching and consulting worldwide in the broad areas of adhesion as well as surface cleaning. He has received numerous awards and honors including the title of doctor honoris causa from Maria Curie- Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland. He is the editor of more than 135 books dealing with adhesion measurement, adhesion of polymeric coatings, polymer surfaces, adhesive joints, adhesion promoters, thin films, polyimides, surface modification surface cleaning, and surfactants. Dr. Mittal is also the Founding Editor of the journal Reviews of Adhesion and Adhesives. Chang-Hwan Choi is a professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Stevens Institute of Technology. He acquired his BS (1995) and MS (1997) in Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering from Seoul National University in Korea. He worked as a researcher at Korea Aerospace Research Institute before he received his PhD (2006) in Mechanical Engineering from the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), specializing in MEMS/Nanotechnology and minoring in Fluid Mechanics and Biomedical Engineering. Areas of his research interest include surface engineering and interfacial phenomena. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed journal articles and been awarded one patent.

Preface xv

Part 1: Fundamentals of Ice Formation and Characterization 1

1 Factors Influencing the Formation, Adhesion, and Friction of Ice 3
Michael J. Wood and Anne-Marie Kietzig

1.1 A Brief History of Man and Ice 4

1.1.1 Ice on Earth 4

1.1.2 Man is Carved of Ice 5

1.1.3 Modern Man Carves Ice 8

1.2 A Thermodynamically Designed Anti-Icing Surface 13

1.2.1 Homogeneous Classical Nucleation Theory 14

1.2.2 Heterogeneous Classical Nucleation Theory 16

1.2.3 Predicting Delays in Ice Nucleation 20

1.2.4 Predicting Ice Nucleation Temperatures 22

1.3 The Adhesion of Ice to Surfaces 25

1.3.1 Wetting and Icing of Ideal Surfaces 26

1.3.2 Wetting of Real Surfaces 30

1.3.3 Ice Adhesion to Real Surfaces 32

1.4 The Sliding Friction of Ice 38

1.4.1 Ice Friction Regimes 39

1.4.2 The Origin of Ice’s Liquid-Like Layer 42

1.4.3 Parameters Affecting The Friction Coefficient of Ice 43

1. 5 Summary 45

References 46

2 Water and Ice Nucleation on Solid Surfaces 55
Youmin Hou, Hans-Jürgen Butt and Michael Kappl

2.1 Introduction 55

2.2 Classical Nucleation Theory 57

2.2.1 Homogeneous Nucleation Rate 59

2.2.1.1 Homogeneous Nucleation of Water Droplets and Ice from Vapor 60

2.2.1.2 Homogeneous Ice Nucleation in Supercooled Water 61

2.2.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation Rate 63

2.2.2.1 Heterogeneous Water Nucleation on Solid Surfaces 63

2.2.3 Spatial Control of Water Nucleation on Nanoengineered Surfaces 68

2.2.4 Heterogeneous Ice Nucleation in Supercooled Water 71

2.3 Prospects 76

2.4 Summary 78

Acknowledgement 79

References 79

3 Physics of Ice Nucleation and Growth on a Surface 87
Alireza Hakimian, Sina Nazifi and Hadi Ghasemi

3.1 Ice Nucleation 88

3.2 Ice Growth 94

3.2.1 Scenario I: Droplet in an Environment without Airflow 95

3.2.2 Scenario II: Droplet in an Environment with External Airflow 99

3.3 Ice Bridging Phenomenon 105

3.4 Summary 108

References 109

4 Condensation Frosting 111
S. Farzad Ahmadi and Jonathan B. Boreyko

4.1 Introduction 111

4.2 Why Supercooled Condensation? 114

4.3 Inter-Droplet Freeze Fronts 117

4.4 Dry Zones and Anti-Frosting Surfaces 124

4.5 Summary and Future Directions 129

References 131

5 The Role of Droplet Dynamics in Condensation Frosting 135
Amy Rachel Betz

5.1 Introduction 135

5.2 Nucleation 137

5.3 Growth 138

5.4 Coalescence and Sweeping 139

5.5 Regeneration or Re-Nucleation 146

5.6 Inception of Freezing 147

5.7 Freezing Front Propagation 149

5.8 Ice Bridging 150

5.9 Frost Growth and Densification 153

5.10 Concluding Discussion 155

Acknowledgments 156

References 156

6 Defrosting Properties of Structured Surfaces 161
S. Farzad Ahmadi and Jonathan B. Boreyko

6.1 Introduction: Defrosting on Smooth Surfaces 162

6.2 Defrosting Heat Exchangers 167

6.3 Dynamic Defrosting on Micro-Grooved Surfaces 170

6.4 Dynamic Defrosting on Liquid-Impregnated Surfaces 172

6.5 Dynamic Defrosting on Nanostructured Superhydrophobic Surfaces 176

6.6 Summary and Future Directions 179

References 181

Part 2: Ice Adhesion and Its Measurement 187

7 On the Relationship between Surface Free Energy and Ice Adhesion of Flat Anti-Icing Surfaces 189
Salih Ozbay and H. Yildirim Erbil

7.1 Introduction 190

7.2 Types of Ice Formation 193

7.2.1 Ice Formation from Supercooled Drops on a Surface 193

7.2.2 Frost Formation from the Existing Humidity in the Medium 194

7.3 Work of Adhesion, Wettability and Surface Free Energy 195

7.4 Factors Affecting Ice Adhesion Strength and Its Standardization 197

7.5 Effect of Water Contact Angle and Surface Free Energy Parameters on Ice Adhesion Strength 199

7.6 Summary 205

References 206

8 Metrology of Ice Adhesion 217
Alireza Hakimian, Sina Nazifi and Hadi Ghasemi

8.1 Theory of Ice Adhesion to a Surface 218

8.2 Centrifugal Force Method 221

8.3 Peak Force Method 224

8.4 Tensile Force Method 230

8.5 Standard Procedure for Ice Adhesion Measurement 231

8.6 Summary 233

References 233

9 Tensile and Shear Test Methods for Quantifying the Ice Adhesion Strength to a Surface 237
Alexandre Laroche, Maria Jose Grasso, Ali Dolatabadi and Elmar Bonaccurso

Glossary 237

9.1 Introduction 239

9.2 About Ice, Impact Ice, and Ice Adhesion Tests 241

9.2.1 Relationship between Wettability and Ice Adhesion 241

9.2.2 A Simple Picture of Condition-Dependent Ice Growth 246

9.2.3 Factors Affecting Ice Adhesion Strength 248

9.3 Review of Ice Adhesion Test Methods 253

9.3.1 Shear Tests 257

9.3.1.1 Pusher and Lap Shear Tests 257

9.3.1.2 Spinning Test Rigs 263

9.3.1.3 Vibrating Cantilever Tests 269

9.3.2 Tensile Tests 274

9.4 Prospects 279

9.5 Summary 279

Acknowledgements 280

References 280

10 Comparison of Icephobic Materials through Interlaboratory Studies 285
Sigrid Rønneberg, Caroline Laforte, Jianying He and Zhiliang Zhang

10.1 Introduction 286

10.2 Icephobicity and Anti-Icing Surfaces 288

10.3 Ice Formation and Properties 289

10.3.1 Definitions of Ice 290

10.3.2 The Effect of Ice Type on Ice Adhesion Strength 294

10.4 Testing Ice Adhesion 299

10.4.1 Description of Selected Common Ice Adhesion Tests 299

10.4.2 Adhesion Reduction Factor 303

10.4.3 Effect of Experimental Parameters 305

10.4.3.1 Temperature 305

10.4.3.2 Ice Sample Size 307

10.4.3.3 Force Probe Placement and Loading Rate 308

10.5 Comparing Low Ice Adhesion Surfaces with Interlaboratory Tests 310

10.5.1 The Need for Comparability 310

10.5.2 Interlaboratory Test Procedure 311

10.5.3 Interlaboratory Test Results 314

10.5.4 Properties of a Future Standard and Reference 317

10.6 Concluding Remarks 319

References 320

Part 3: Methods to Mitigate Ice Adhesion 325

11 Mechanisms of Surface Icing and Deicing Technologies 327
Ilker S. Bayer

11.1 A Brief Description of Icing and Ice Adhesion 328

11.2 Examples of Mathematical Modeling of Icing on Various Static or Moving Surfaces 331

11.3 New Applications of Common Deicing Compounds 334

11.4 Plasma-Based Deicing Systems 336

11.5 Functional Super (Hydrophilic) or Wettable Polymeric Coatings to Resist Icing 340

11.6 Nanoscale Carbon Coatings with/without Resistive Heating 345

11.7 Antifreeze Proteins 349

11.8 Summary and Perspectives 354

References 355

12 Icephobicities of Superhydrophobic Surfaces 361
Dong Song, Youhua Jiang, Mohammad Amin Sarshar and Chang-Hwan Choi

12.1 Introduction 362

12.2 Anti-Icing Property of Superhydrophobic Surfaces under Dynamic Flow Conditions 369

12.2.1 Preparation of Superhydrophobic Surfaces 369

12.2.2 Anti-Icing Test under Dynamic Flow Conditions 369

12.2.3 Results and Discussion 372

12.3 Analytical Models of Depinning Force on Superhydrophobic Surfaces 374

12.4 Analytical Models of Contact Angles on Superhydrophobic Surfaces 378

12.5 De-Icing Property of Superhydrophobic Surfaces under Static Conditions 381

12.5.1 De-Icing Test under Static Conditions 381

12.5.2 Results and Discussion 382

12.6 Conclusions 384

Acknowledgments 384

References 384

13 Ice Adhesion and Anti-Icing Using Microtextured Surfaces 389
Mool C. Gupta and Alan Mulroney

13.1 Introduction 389

13.1.1 Background 389

13.1.2 State-of-the-Art 392

13.2 Microtextured Surfaces: Wetting Characteristics and Anti-Icing Properties 393

13.2.1 Wetting on Microtextured Surfaces 393

13.2.2 Wetting and Icephobic Surfaces 396

13.2.3 Ice Adhesion to Microtextured Surfaces 398

13.3 Measurement Methods for Ice Adhesion 398

13.3.1 Force Measurement Techniques 399

13.3.2 Contact Area Measurements 400

13.3.3 Measurement Variance and Error 401

13.4 Fabrication Methods for Microtextured Surfaces 402

13.4.1 Micro/Nanoparticle Coatings 402

13.4.2 Chemical Etching 403

13.4.3 Laser Ablation Techniques 404

13.4.4 Embossing Techniques 406

13.5 Microtextured Surfaces and Anti-Icing Applications 407

13.5.1 Solar 408

13.5.2 Wind 409

13.5.3 Aircraft 410

13.5.4 HVAC 410

13.6 Future Outlook 411

Acknowledgments 411

References 412

14 Icephobic Surfaces: Features and Challenges 417
Michael Grizen and Manish K. Tiwari

14.1 Introduction 418

14.2 Features and Challenges in Rational Fabrication of Icephobic Surfaces 418

14.3 Wettability 420

14.4 Surface Engineering 422

14.4.1 Repelling Impacting Droplets 422

14.4.1.1 Drop Impact Characterization 422

14.4.1.2 Enhancing Surface Resistance against Drop Impact 425

14.4.1.3 Additional Factors Affecting Supercooled Droplet Impacts 431

14.4.2 Freezing Delay 432

14.4.2.1 Delaying Freezing of a Droplet 432

14.4.2.2 Delaying Frost Formation 437

14.4.3 Ice Adhesion 443

14.4.3.1 Theory 443

14.4.3.2 Strategies to Lower Ice Adhesion Strength 447

14.5 De-Icing 454

14.5.1 Electro- and Photo-Thermal 455

14.5.2 Magneto- and Photo-Thermal 456

14.6 Summary 457

References 458

15 Bio-Inspired Anti-Icing Surface Materials 467
Shuwang Wu, Yichen Yan, Dong Wu, Zhiyuan He and Ximin He

Glossary of Symbols 468

Glossary of Abbreviations 468

15.1 Introduction 469

15.2 Depressing Ice Nucleation 471

15.3 Retarding Ice Propagation 474

15.4 Reducing Ice Adhesion 479

15.5 All-in-One Anti-Icing Materials 482

15.6 Summary and Conclusions 485

References 486

16 Testing the Durability of Anti-Icing Coatings 495
Sergei A. Kulinich, Denis Masson, Xi-Wen Du and Alexandre M. Emelyanenko

16.1 Introduction 496

16.2 Icing/Deicing Tests and Ice Types 497

16.2.1 Evaluating the Durability of Surfaces 498

16.2.2 Rough Superhydrophobic Surfaces and their Durability 506

16.2.3 Smooth Hydrophobic Surfaces and their Durability 511

16.3 Concluding Remarks 513

References 514

17 Durability Assessment of Icephobic Coatings 521
Alireza Hakimian, Sina Nazifi and Hadi Ghasemi

17.1 Introduction 522

17.2 UV-Induced Degradation 523

17.2.1 Autocatalytic Photo-Induced Degradation Mechanism 523

17.2.2 Factors Affecting UV Resistance 524

17.2.3 UV-Induced Photo-Oxidation Prevention 525

17.3 Hydrolytic Degradation of Coatings 527

17.4 Atmospheric Conditions and Changes in Coating Performance 529

17.5 Mechanical Durability of Coating 532

17.5.1 Cracking 533

17.5.2 Erosion of Coatings 535

17.5.3 Abrasion 536

17.6 Methods for Durability Assessment of an Icephobic Coating 539

17.7 Summary 542

References 543

18 Experimental Investigations on Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings for Aircraft Inflight Icing Mitigation 547
Yang Liu and Hui Hu

18.1 Introduction About Aircraft Icing Phenomena 548

18.2 Impact Icing Pertinent to Aircraft Icing vs. Conventional Frosting or Static Icing 551

18.3 State-of-the-Art Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings 553

18.3.1 Superhydrophobic Surfaces with Micro-/Nano-Scale Textures 555

18.3.2 Slippery Liquid-Infused Porous Surfaces 557

18.3.3 Icephobic Soft Materials with Ultra-Low Ice Adhesion Strength and Good Mechanical Durability 558

18.4 Comparison of Ice Adhesion Strengths of Different Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings 560

18.5 Durability of the Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings under High-Speed Droplet Impacting 562

18.6 Icing Tunnel Testing to Evaluate the Effectiveness of the Icephobic Coatings for Impact Icing Mitigation 566

18.7 Summary 569

Acknowledgments 571

References 571

19 Effect of and Protection from Ice Accretion on Aircraft 577
Zhenlong Wu and Qiang Wang

Glossary 577

19.1 Introduction 578

19.2 Fundamental Icing Parameters 579

19.2.1 Droplet Diameter 579

19.2.2 Liquid Water Content 580

19.2.3 Ambient Icing Temperature 581

19.3 Types of Ice on Aircraft 581

19.3.1 Rime Ice 581

19.3.2 Glaze Ice 582

19.3.3 Mixed Ice 583

19.4 Aircraft Icing Effects 584

19.4.1 Iced Aerodynamics 584

19.4.1.1 Drag Rise 584

19.4.1.2 Lift Reduction 586

19.4.1.3 Moment Variation 589

19.4.1.4 Separation Bubble Formation 590

19.4.1.5 Boundary Layer Thickening 592

19.4.2 Iced Flight Mechanics 594

19.4.2.1 Flight Performance Disruption 594

19.4.2.2 Stability and Control Degradation 596

19.5 Sensing of and Protection from Aircraft Icing 596

19.5.1 Sensing of Ice Accretion 596

19.5.2 De-Icing and Anti-Icing 598

19.5.3 Envelope Protection 599

19.5.4 Control Reconfiguration 601

19.6 Summary 603

Funding and Acknowledgement 603

References 603

20 Numerical Modeling and Its Application to Inflight Icing 607
Kwanjung Yee

20.1 Introduction 608

20.2 Aircraft Icing 609

20.2.1 Icing Environment 609

20.2.1.1 Cloud Formation 609

20.2.1.2 Cloud Classification 609

20.2.1.3 Icing Cloud 613

20.2.1.4 Icing Envelope 615

20.2.2 Icing Mechanism 617

20.2.2.1 Fundamentals of Icing 617

20.2.2.2 Characterization of Ice Shape 620

20.2.2.3 Critical Issues in Icing Physics 621

20.3 Numerical Technique for Inflight Icing 625

20.3.1 Composition of the Inflight Icing Code 626

20.3.2 Flow Analysis Solver 628

20.3.2.1 Inviscid Flow Solver 628

20.3.2.2 Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) Equation 631

20.3.3 Droplet Trajectory Module 635

20.3.3.1 Lagrangian Approach 635

20.3.3.2 Eulerian Approach 637

20.3.4 Thermodynamic Module 639

20.3.4.1 Messinger Model 639

20.3.4.2 Extended Messinger Model (Stefan Equation) 641

20.3.4.3 Shallow Water Icing Model (SWIM) 642

20.3.5 Ice Growth Module 644

20.3.6 Application of the Numerical Simulation 645

20.3.6.1 2D Airfoil 646

20.3.6.2 3D DLR-F6 Configuration 647

20.3.6.3 Rotorcraft Fuselage 649

20.4 Numerical Simulation of Icing Protection System (IPS) 651

20.4.1 IPS 651

20.4.2 Simulation for IPS 653

20.4.3 Thermal IPS Simulation Analysis 655

20.4.3.1 Electro-Thermal IPS Simulation 655

20.4.3.2 Water Film Analysis 656

20.5 Numerical Issues in the Inflight Icing Code 658

20.5.1 Analysis of the Surface Roughness 658

20.5.2 Analysis of the Transition in the Boundary Layer Problem 659

20.5.3 Analysis of the Rotor Blade Icing Problem 660

20.5.4 Analysis of the Uncertainty Qualification (UQ) 661

20.6 Summary 662

References 663