Bioremediation Technology for Plastic Waste (eBook)

Preface 6
Acknowledgment 8
Contents 10
About the Authors 15
1: General Introduction 18
1.1 Introduction 18
1.2 Bioremediation: Natural or Induced 21
1.3 Purpose of Bioremediation 21
1.4 Types of Environmental Waste 22
1.5 Discovery of Plastic Synthesis 22
1.6 Advantages of the Plastic 23
1.7 Lacunae in the Literature 24
1.8 Need of the Present Book 24
References 25
2: Microplastics 27
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Primary Microplastics 29
2.3 Secondary Microplastics 29
2.4 Sources of Microplastics 30
2.4.1 City Dust 30
2.4.2 Marine Coatings 30
2.4.3 Personal Care Products 30
2.4.4 Plastic Pellets 31
2.4.5 Road Markings 31
2.4.6 Synthetic Textiles 31
2.4.7 Tyres 32
2.5 Potential Impacts of Microplastics 32
2.6 Conclusions 33
References 33
3: Plastic Waste Disposal and Reuse of Plastic Waste 36
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Most Dangerous Environmental Waste 37
3.3 Percentage of Plastic in Total Environmental Waste at Global Level 37
3.4 Factors Affecting Degradability of the Plastic 38
3.4.1 Chemical Composition 38
3.4.2 Molecular Weight 38
3.4.3 Hydrophobic Character 38
3.4.4 Size of Molecule 38
3.4.5 Introduction of Functionality and Additives 38
3.4.6 Chemical Bonding 39
3.4.7 Environmental Conditions 39
3.5 Methods Employed to Tackle the Plastic Waste 39
3.5.1 Landfilling 39
3.5.2 Incineration 40
3.5.3 Recycling 40
3.5.4 Construction of Roads 40
3.5.5 Production of Petrol 41
3.6 Degradation 41
3.6.1 Physical Change 42
3.6.2 Mechanical Change 42
3.6.3 Chemical Properties or Structural Changes 42
3.6.4 Molecular Weight Distribution 42
3.6.5 Photodegradation 42
3.6.6 Thermo-oxidative Degradation 43
3.6.7 Biodegradation 43
3.7 Conclusions 43
References 43
4: Case Studies and Recent Update of Plastic Waste Degradation 46
4.1 Introduction 46
4.2 Types of Plastic Targeted 47
4.3 First Report of Plastic Degradation 48
4.4 Types of Plastic Degradation (Photodegradation, Oxy-photodegradation, Bioremediation) 48
4.5 Mechanism of Plastic Biodegradation 49
4.6 Mechanism of Biodegradation of Polythene 50
4.7 Microbes with Plastic Degradation Potential 51
4.8 Conclusions 54
References 54
5: Bacteria as Key Players of Plastic Bioremediation 59
5.1 Introduction 59
5.2 A Case Study of Polythene Degradation by Bacteria as a Key Player 60
5.2.1 Material and Methods 60
5.2.1.1 Identification of the Localities of Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh 60
5.2.1.2 Collection of the Rhizosphere Soil of the A. marina 60
5.2.1.3 Identification and Authentication of the A. marina 60
5.2.1.4 Physicochemical Analysis 60
5.2.1.5 Isolation of the Bacteria 61
5.2.1.6 Screening of the Polythene-Degrading Bacteria 61
5.2.1.7 Screening of the Polythene-Degrading Bacterial Isolates Based on Percent Weight Loss (% WL) 61
5.2.1.8 Repetition of the Polythene Degradation Assay Based on % WL 62
5.2.1.9 Screening of the Polythene-Degrading Bacterial Isolates Based on Percent Loss in Tensile Strength (% Loss in TS) 62
5.2.1.10 Repetition of the Polythene Degradation Assay Based on % Loss in TS 62
5.2.1.11 Statistical Analysis 62
5.2.1.12 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy-Attenuated Total Reflection (FTIR-ATR) Analyses 63
5.2.1.13 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analysis 63
5.3 Results 63
5.3.1 Survey and Collection of the Soil Samples for Isolation of Bacteria 63
5.3.2 Identification and Authentication of the Avicennia marina 63
5.3.3 Physiochemical Analysis of the Rhizosphere Soil and Adjoining Water Samples 64
5.3.4 Isolation of the Bacterial Isolates 66
5.3.5 Screening of the Polythene-Degrading Bacteria 70
5.3.5.1 Screening of the Polythene-Degrading Bacteria Based on Percent Weight Loss (% WL) 70
5.3.5.2 Percent Weight Loss of Polythene at pH 3.5 70
5.3.5.3 Percent Weight Loss of Polythene at pH 7 70
5.3.5.4 Percent Weight Loss of Polythene at pH 9.5 71
5.3.5.5 Screening of the Polythene-Degrading Bacteria Based on Percent Loss in Tensile Strength (% Loss in TS) 72
5.3.5.6 Percent Loss in Tensile Strength at pH 3.5 72
5.3.5.7 Percent Loss in Tensile Strength at pH 7 72
5.3.5.8 Percent Loss in Tensile Strength at pH 9.5 73
5.3.6 FTIR Analysis 74
5.3.7 SEM Analysis 74
5.4 Discussion 75
5.5 Conclusions 81
References 81
6: In Situ Bioremediation Technology for Plastic Degradation 84
6.1 Introduction 84
6.2 Reports of In Situ Plastic Degradation 85
6.2.1 In Situ Degradation of Plastics in the Mangrove Soil (Kathiresan 2003) 85
6.2.2 In Situ Biodegradation Assay of LDPE Films (Kapri et al. 2010) 86
6.2.3 In Situ Biodegradation Assay and Recovery of Degraded Film (Negi et al. 2011) 86
6.2.4 In Situ Degradation of Polythene and Plastics in the Soil (Priyanka and Archana 2011) 87
6.3 Most Efficient Study 87
6.4 Conclusions 88
References 88
7: Ex Situ Bioremediation Technology for Plastic Degradation 89
7.1 Introduction 89
7.2 Reports of Plastic Degradation 90
7.2.1 Reports on Ex Situ Degradation of the Plastic 90
7.2.1.1 Case Study of the Composting of the Polythene Strips Using Polythene-Degrading Bacteria and Fungi Isolated in the Rhiz... 91
7.2.1.2 Preparation of Pots for Polythene Degradation Assay 91
7.2.1.3 Preparation of the Polythene for Degradation Assay 92
7.3 Preparation of Bacterial and Fungal Inoculum 92
7.4 Inoculation of the Bacterial and Fungal Cultures into the Pots with Dumped Polythene Strips 92
7.5 Analysis of Polythene Degradation 93
7.6 Most Efficient Method 94
7.7 Conclusions 94
References 94
8: Social Awareness of Plastic Waste Threat 96
8.1 Introduction 96
8.2 Total Amount of Plastic Waste Generated Worldwide 97
8.3 Effect of Plastic Waste on Marine and Terrestrial Animals 98
8.4 Effect of Plastic Waste on Soil Fertility 98
8.5 Effect of Plastic Waste on the Environment 99
8.6 Alternate to Plastic 99
8.7 Recommendations to Minimize the Use of Plastic 100
8.8 Conclusions 100
References 101
9: Analysis of the Plastic Degradation Products 103
9.1 Introduction 103
9.2 Methods of Analysis 104
9.2.1 Dilution of the Plastic Degradation Products 104
9.2.2 Solvent for the Plastic Degradation Products 105
9.3 Reports of Polythene Degradation Products (PEDP) Analysis 105
9.3.1 GC-MS Analysis of the PEDP Produced Due to Action of Bacteria (Shahnawaz et al. 2016) 105
9.3.2 GC-MS Analysis of PEDP Produced Due to the Action of Fungi (Sangale et al. 2019) 107
9.4 Conclusion 110
References 110
10: Toxicity Testing of Plastic-Degrading Products 112
10.1 Introduction 112
10.2 Effect of Plastic Degradation Products on Plants 113
10.2.1 Collection of the Seeds 113
10.2.2 Obtaining Polythene Degradation Products and Their Dilution 113
10.2.3 Assessment of Toxicity Testing on Sorghum Seeds 114
10.3 Effect of Plastic Degradation Products on Animals 114
10.3.1 Source of the Animal System 114
10.3.2 Acclimatization of the Edible Fishes in the Laboratory 114
10.3.3 Addition of PEDP for Toxicity Testing on Fishes 115
10.3.4 Mortality Rate 115
10.4 Reports of Toxicity Testing of Polythene Degradation Products on Plants and Animal Systems 115
10.4.1 Effect of Plastic Degradation Products on Plants 115
10.4.1.1 Germination Percentage (%G) 115
10.4.1.2 Germination Index (GI) 115
10.4.1.3 Percent Elongation Inhibition Rate (%EI) 117
10.4.2 Effect of Plastic Degradation Products on Animals 118
10.5 Conclusions 119
References 120
11: Policy and Legislation/Regulations of Plastic Waste Around the Globe 122
11.1 Introduction 122
11.2 Policies and Regulations of Maharashtra Government to Tackle with the Plastic Waste 123
11.3 Policies and Regulations of the Government of India to Manage Plastic Waste 127
11.4 Policies and Regulations to Address the Plastic Waste in European Countries 128
11.4.1 Plastic Ban in Certain Products 129
11.4.2 Consumption Reduction Targets 129
11.4.3 Obligations for Producers 129
11.4.4 Collection Targets 129
11.4.5 Labeling Requirements 129
11.4.6 Awareness-Raising Measures 130
11.5 Policies and Regulations Followed by the United States to Control the Plastic Waste 130
11.5.1 US Regulation of Solid Waste Disposal (Keller and Heckman 2002) 130
11.5.2 Impact of Policies and Regulations on the Practical Plastic Waste Management 131
11.6 Waste Management Initiatives in India 132
11.6.1 Public Sector 132
11.6.2 Private-Formal Sector 132
11.6.3 Private-Informal Sector 133
11.7 Conclusions 133
References 134
12: Conclusions and Future Needs 136
12.1 Conclusions 136
12.2 Future Needs in Plastic Biodegradation 138
References 138