Radiation Effects in Polymeric Materials (eBook)

Dr. Vijay KumarDr. Vijay Kumar is an Assistant Professor at National Institute of Technology, Srinagar, J&K, India. He was a postdoc fellow in Professor Swart’s group at the University of the Free State, South Africa from April 2013- December 2015. He received his Ph.D. (Physics/Material Science) from Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal (Deemed University) in Collaboration with Inter University Accelerator Center (Formerly known as Nuclear Science Center), New Delhi. During the last eight years of his research career, he has published more than 75 research papers in many of the reputed international journals, which attracted more than 1910 citations. He has already edited 2 books for Springer and Wiley respectively. He is a reviewer for about 40 international and national professional journals in his field (or in related fields) And active as editorial board member He is a leading guest editor of Virtual Special Issue of VACUUM and Materials Today: Proceedings (both Elsevier). He has received the “Teacher with Best Research Contribution Award” (Chandigarh University) And the Young Scientist Award under the fast track scheme of Department of Science and Technology (Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India), New Delhi. member of Scientific Advisory Committee for Initiative for Research and Innovation in Science (IRIS) His current research involves the synthesis and spectroscopic investigations of rare earth/transitional metal ions doped nanomaterials, nanocomposites, and hybrid materials to make color tunable emission in solid-state lighting and white light LEDs. He is also working on the synthesis and characterization of a biomaterial with electro-conductive properties that could be used in biomedical applications with better biocompatibility. Dr. Babulal ChaudharyDr. Babulal Chaudhary has been working as Scientific Program Officer in Indo-US Science and Technology Forum, New Delhi.  He received his B.Sc. in Physics, Chemistry and Maths; M.Sc. in Electronics from University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, M.Tech in Electronics and Communication from Uttar Pradesh Technical University, Lucknow. He has Obtain his Ph.D. in Physics, from University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. His research interests include synthesis, and characterization of Thin Films, nanocomposites, Carbon based materials like CNT, Graphene Oxide (GO), rGO  for energy harvesting and storage. He has published more than 20 research papers in several international journals, along with more than 12 publications in proceedings of international/national conferences.Dr. Vishal SharmaDr. Vishal Sharma is presently working as an Assistant Professor, Institute of Forensic Science & Criminology, Panjab University, Chandigarh (INDIA). He has obtained his Ph.D. degree in Physics discipline from Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India and Inter University Accelerator Centre (IUAC-an autonomous centre of UGC, GOI), New Delhi (INDIA) in 2007. He has performed series of experiments on Swift Heavy Ions at IUAC. He is the recipient of DAE Young scientist research award in the year 2011. His current research interest is in the study of Energy loss & energy loss straggling of heavy Ions in polymers, polymer nano-composites for different applications, development of inorganic nano-particles /nano phosphor in latent fingermark and lip mark detection for forensic applications, Chemometrics in forensic science and development of various methods for the analysis of trace exhibits in forensic science. Dr. Vishal Sharma is the author of over 50 scientific papers and four book chapters with maximum impact factor up to 8.5. He has delivered key note, invited talk, session chair and presented his work in various national & International Conferences. Dr. Kartikey VermaDr. Kartikey Verma has been working as Young Scientist Fellow (DST Young Scientist Fellow) in Department of Chemical Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India, He received his B.Sc. in Physics, Chemistry and Maths; M.Sc. in Electronics, and Ph.D. in Physics, from University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. His research interests include processing, and characterization of Thin Films, polymer matrix composites, nanocomposites, bio-based polymers and graphene based materials for energy harvesting and storage. He has published more than 15 research papers in several international journals, along with more than 20 publications in proceedings of international/national conferences.  

Contents 6
About the Editors 8
1 Effects of Radiation on the Environment 10
Abstract 10
1 Introduction 11
2 Discovery of Radioactivity 12
3 Types and Sources of Radiation 13
3.1 Non-ionizing Radiations 14
3.1.1 EM Field Radiations 15
3.1.2 RF and ?w Radiations 17
3.2 Ionizing Radiation 17
3.2.1 Alpha Radiation (?) 18
3.2.2 Beta Radiation (?) 19
3.2.3 Neutron Radiation (N) 19
3.2.4 High-Energy Photon Radiation (Gamma [?] and X-Rays) 20
4 Natural Sources of Ionizing Radiation 20
4.1 Radon 20
4.2 Cosmic Radiation 21
4.3 Natural Radioactivity in Food 21
5 Artificial (Man-Made) Sources of Ionizing Radiation 22
5.1 Medicine 22
5.2 Nuclear Fuel Cycle 23
5.3 Atmospheric Testing 23
5.4 Chernobyl Accident 24
5.5 Radiation in the Workplace 24
6 Radiation Units 25
6.1 SI Units 26
7 Effects of Radiation to Environment 27
7.1 Impact of UV Radiations on Atmosphere 29
7.2 Implications of Radiation on Human Health 30
7.3 Delayed Health Effects 31
7.4 Effects on Fetus/Children 31
7.5 Effects on Genetic Materials 33
7.6 Effect on Plants 33
7.7 Effect on Animals 34
7.8 UV Damage to Aquatic Organisms 36
7.9 RF-EMFs’ Exposures in Kindergarten Children 37
7.10 Solar UV Exposure in Construction Workers 37
7.11 Effect of Cosmic Radiation on Airline Flyers 37
8 Radiation Disasters in History 39
8.1 Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster 39
8.2 Fukushima Nuclear Disaster 39
8.3 Three Mile Island Nuclear Disaster 40
8.4 Windscale Nuclear Disaster 40
9 Summary 40
10 Conclusion 41
References 41
2 Radiation Physics and Chemistry of Polymeric Materials 44
Abstract 44
1 Introduction 45
2 Polymer Ion Interactions 46
2.1 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 47
2.1.1 Coulomb Explosion Model 47
2.1.2 Thermal Spike Model 47
2.2 Stopping and Range of Ions in Polymers 48
2.3 Irradiation Effects on Polymers 49
3 Concept of Free Volume 52
3.1 Positron Annihilation Lifetime Spectroscopy 52
4 Polymethyl Methacrylate 54
5 Polyethylene Terephthalate 61
6 Polyallyl Diglycol Carbonate 67
7 Applications 68
8 Summary and Conclusion 70
Appendix 71
References 71
3 High-Fluence Ion Implantation of Polymers: Evolution of Structure and Composition 78
Abstract 78
1 Introduction 78
2 Ion Stopping and Change of Polymer Structure 80
2.1 Latent Tracks and Thermolysis 80
2.2 Structural Changes Due to Nuclear and Electronic Stopping 82
2.3 Degassing, Carbonisation and Oxidation 84
3 Depth Distribution of Implanted Impurities 88
4 Metal Nanoparticle Formation Under High Fluences 91
5 Nanoparticle Implantation Using Cluster Beam Technique 93
6 Properties of Polymers Implanted with High Fluences 95
6.1 Surface Properties and Mechanical Characteristics 95
6.2 Electrical Conductance 98
6.3 Optical Properties 102
6.4 Magnetic Properties 107
7 Conclusion 109
References 109
4 Ion Beam Modification of Poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) 121
Abstract 121
1 Introduction 121
2 Chemical Modification of PMMA by High-Energy Ions 122
2.1 Chain Scission and Crosslinking 122
2.2 Radiolysis, Volatiles, and Changes in the Chemical Structure 125
2.3 Damage Cross Sections 131
2.4 Changes in Physicochemical Properties 135
2.4.1 Density Enhancement and Compaction 135
2.4.2 Optical Properties 137
2.4.3 Mechanical Properties 140
2.4.4 Changes in Electrical Properties 142
3 Concluding Remarks 143
References 145
5 Radiation-Induced Effects on the Properties of Polymer-Metal Nanocomposites 148
Abstract 148
1 Introduction 149
2 Nanoparticles 150
2.1 Synthesis of Nanoparticles 150
2.2 Stabilization of Nanoparticles 151
3 Nanocomposites 152
4 Metal Nanoparticles 153
5 Polymer-Metal Nanocomposites (PMN) 156
6 PVA as a Host Matrix and Silver as Nanofiller 157
7 Ionizing Irradiation-Induced Effects 158
7.1 Electromagnetic Irradiation 158
7.2 Swift Heavy Ions Irradiation 159
8 Some Past and Future Trends in Ionizing Irradiated Polymer–metal Nanocomposites 162
9 Optical Properties of Metal Embedded Polymer Nanocomposites 166
10 Experimental Section 169
10.1 Sample Preparation 169
10.2 Different Irradiation to PVA/Ag Nanocomposites 170
11 Characterization 170
12 Results and Discussion 171
12.1 TEM Analysis 171
12.2 Proposed Mechanism of Formation of Silver Nanoparticles 172
12.3 UV-Visible Spectroscopy 173
12.3.1 Surface Plasmon Absorption Band 173
12.3.2 Optical Energy Gap and Urbach’s Energy 175
12.3.3 Refractive Index 179
12.4 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 181
12.5 Fourier Transmission Infrared (FTIR) 183
12.6 Raman 186
13 Applications of Prepared Nanocomposites 187
13.1 Band Pass Filter 187
13.2 Antireflective Coating 189
13.3 UV Blocking Device 192
14 Conclusions 193
References 195
6 Swift Heavy Ion Irradiation Effects on the Properties of Conducting Polymer Nanostructures 200
Abstract 200
1 Introduction 201
2 Ion-Matter Interaction 203
2.1 Thermal Spike Model 207
2.2 Coulomb Explosion Model 210
3 Ion-Matter Interaction Parameters 211
4 Ion Irradiation Effects on Polymers 212
4.1 Interaction Mechanisms 212
4.2 Latent Ion Track Chemistry 216
5 Practical Applications of Ion Irradiation 217
5.1 Applications of Low-Energy Ion Irradiation of Solids 217
5.2 Applications of High-Energetic Ion Impact onto Solids 218
6 Experimental Setup for Ion Irradiation 219
7 Experimental 221
7.1 Sample Preparation 221
7.2 Formation Mechanism of PPy Nanotubes 222
8 Irradiation Effects on PPy Nanotubes with 160 MeV Ni12+ 223
8.1 High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy Studies 223
8.2 X-Ray Diffraction Studies 223
8.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Analysis 226
8.4 UV-Vis Absorption Spectroscopy Studies 228
8.5 Micro-Raman Analysis 231
8.6 I-V Characteristics 232
8.7 Thermogravimetric Analysis 233
8.8 AC Conductivity Studies 235
8.9 Dielectric Permittivity Studies 238
8.10 Electric Modulus Studies 241
9 Perspectives for Ion-Solid Interactions 244
10 Conclusions 245
References 246
7 Impact of Etchant Variables on the Track Parameters in CR-39 Polymer Nuclear Track Detector: A Review 250
Abstract 250
1 Introduction 250
2 Track Formation and Etching Parameters 252
3 Etching Parameter Measurements 254
3.1 Bulk Etch Rate 254
3.1.1 Methods for Bulk Etch Rate /left( {{{/usertwo V}}_{{/bf B}} } /right) Measurements 254
3.1.2 Activation Energy of Bulk Etch Rate /left( {{{/usertwo V}}_{{/bf B}} } /right) 255
3.1.3 Bulk Etch Rate and Activation Energy Measurements of CR-39 Track Detector 255
3.1.4 Data Compilation of Activation Energy of Bulk Etch Rate of CR-39 261
3.2 Track Etch Rate 261
3.2.1 Methods for Track Etch Rate /left( {{{/usertwo V}}_{{/bf T}} } /right) Measurements 262
3.2.2 Activation Energy of Track Etch Rate 263
3.2.3 Track Etch Rate and Activation Energy Measurements of CR-39 Track Detector 263
3.2.4 Data Compilation of Activation Energy of Track Etch Rate of CR-39 264
3.3 Sensitivity 265
3.4 Critical Angle of Etching 267
3.5 Etching Efficiency 268
4 Applications and Future Projections of Nuclear Track Detectors 270
4.1 Applications of Nuclear Track Detectors 270
4.1.1 Biological Applications 270
4.1.2 Radiation Dosimetry 271
4.1.3 Nuclear Physics 271
5 Conclusions and Future Scope 271
References 272
8 Synthesis of Hydrogels by Modification of Natural Polysaccharides Through Radiation Cross-Linking Polymerization for Use in Drug Delivery 275
Abstract 275
1 Historical Background 276
2 Hydrogels 276
3 Classifications of Hydrogels 278
4 Synthesis of Hydrogels 278
4.1 Chemical Synthesis of Hydrogels 281
4.2 Radiation-Induced Synthesis of Hydrogels 282
4.2.1 Gamma Radiation-Induced Synthesis of Natural Gum-Based Hydrogels 283
4.2.2 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Gum-Based Hydrogels 285
4.2.3 Electron Radiation-Induced Synthesis of Hydrogels 289
4.2.4 Heavy Ion-Induced Modifications and Synthesis of Hydrogels 290
5 Miscellaneous 291
6 Conclusion 294
Acknowledgements 294
References 294
9 Effects of Radiations on the Properties of Polycarbonate 299
Abstract 299
1 Importance of the Study of Radiation Effects on Polymers 299
2 Types of Radiation 300
3 Interaction of Radiation with Polymer 302
4 Polycarbonate 303
5 Schematic Mechanism of Effect of Radiation on Polycarbonate 304
6 Effect of Radiation on the Properties of Polycarbonate 305
6.1 Optical Properties 305
6.2 Electrical Properties 309
6.3 Thermal Properties 311
6.4 Structural Properties 313
6.5 Chemical Properties 315
6.6 Surface Morphological Properties 317
6.7 Free Volume Properties 319
6.8 Mechanical Properties 320
6.9 Rheological Properties 322
7 Conclusions 322
References 323
10 Plasma Irradiation of Polymers: Surface to Biological Mitigation 325
Abstract 325
1 Biomaterials 326
2 Polymers 330
2.1 Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) 331
3 Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials 332
4 Polymer—Nanocomposite 333
5 Plasma Surface Modification 335
6 Plasma Gases 340
6.1 Air and Its Properties as a Source of Plasma 341
6.2 Inert Gas Neon (Ne) and Its Properties as a Source of Plasma 342
6.3 Reactive Gas Nitrogen (N2) and Its Properties as a Source of Plasma 343
6.4 Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) and Its Properties as a Source of Plasma 344
7 Biocompatibility and Bio-adoptability (in General and Properties Required) 345
8 Role of Nanotechnology for Enhancement of Biocompatibility and Bio-adoptability 346
9 Role of Plasma Treatment in Enhancement of Biocompatibility and Bio-adoptability 347
10 Influence of Plasma Processing and Nanomaterial Casting on Biocompatibility and Bio-adoptability of Biomaterials 348
11 Nanobiomaterials 349
12 Summary, Conclusions, and Scope for Future Work 350
References 351
11 Effects of Neutron Irradiation on Polymer 357
Abstract 357
1 Introduction 357
1.1 Nuclear Interactions with Matter 359
1.1.1 Elastic Scattering 359
1.1.2 Inelastic Scattering 360
1.1.3 Nuclear Reactions 360
1.1.4 Neutron Capture 360
2 Radiation Effects in Materials 361
2.1 Neutron Irradiation Processing and Modifications 363
2.1.1 Etching Parameters 363
2.1.2 UV–Vis Spectral Analysis 364
2.1.3 FTIR Spectroscopic Analysis 368
3 Conclusions 372
References 373
12 Radiation Crosslinking for the Cable, Rubber and Healthcare Products Industry 375
Abstract 375
1 Introduction 376
2 Radiation Sources 377
2.1 Gamma Irradiators 377
2.2 Electron Accelerators 378
2.3 Electron Accelerator-Based e?/X Systems 379
3 Radiation Processing of Polymers 380
3.1 Transfer of Ionizing Radiation Energy to the Irradiated Materials Components 380
3.2 Radiation Caused Effects in Polymers 381
4 Cable Industry 385
5 Rubber Industry 389
5.1 Tire Industry 391
6 Medical Devices Industry 392
6.1 Radiation Vulcanization of Latex for Medical Use 392
7 Other Industrial Applications 393
8 Conclusions and Challenges for the Future 395
Acknowledgements 395
References 395
13 Energy Loss of Swift Heavy Ions: Fundamentals and Theoretical Formulations 398
Abstract 398
1 Introduction 399
2 Fundamentals of Ion Interactions with Matter 400
2.1 Electronic Energy Loss Rate 401
2.2 Nuclear Energy Loss Rate 405
2.3 Comparison of Electronic and Nuclear Energy Loss Rate 405
2.4 Scaling Law 406
2.5 Concept of Effective Charge 407
2.6 Units of Energy Loss Rate 407
3 Energy Loss Formulations 408
3.1 LSS Theory 408
3.2 Northcliffe and Schilling Formulation 409
3.3 Ziegler, Biersack, and Littmark Formulation 410
3.4 Paul and Schinner Formulation 412
3.5 Hubert, Bimbot, and Gauvin Formulation 412
3.6 Diwan et al. Formulation 413
4 Energy Loss in Polymers/Compounds: Bragg’s Rule 414
5 Importance and Conclusion 414
References 415