The American Steam Locomotive in the Twentieth Century

Mining engineer Tom Morrison has written technical histories on mining and aviation. He lives in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

Table of Contents


Preface • 1

Introduction • 3

Part One: Background to Locomotive Development

Chapter 1. The American Railroad Industry • 12

1.1 Political and Economic Environment • 12

1.1.1 Early Years of the Industry • 12

1.1.2 Depression and New Expansion • 13

1.1.3 The New Political Climate • 16

1.1.4 War and Government Administration • 21

1.1.5 The 1920s • 22

1.1.6 The Depression Years • 24

1.1.7 War and Aftermath • 27

1.2 Size and Extent of the Railroad and Locomotive Building Industries • 28

1.2.1 The Railroad Industry • 28

1.2.2 Locomotive Building • 31

1.3 Railroad Engineering • 35

1.3.1 Management Science and the ­Ton-Mile Statistic • 35

1.3.2 Locomotive and Train Operating Costs • 35

1.3.3 The Trend to Bigger Equipment • 37

1.3.4 The Trend to Higher Speeds • 39

1.3.5 Track and Substructures • 41

1.3.6 Signaling Systems • 42

1.3.7 Integrated Improvement Programs • 43

1.3.8 Maintenance and Availability • 48

1.3.9 Working Conditions • 52

1.3.10 Safety • 55

1.3.11 The Motive Power Dilemma and the End of Steam • 58

Part Two: Compounds and Mastodons, 1895–1905

Chapter 2. General Steam Locomotive Development, 1895–1905 • 64

Chapter 3. Locomotive Engineering, 1895–1905 • 76

3.1 Fuels, Firing and Fuel Economy • 76

3.1.1 Coal • 76

3.1.2 Oil • 76

3.1.3 Coal Firing • 77

3.1.4 Mechanical Stokers • 79

3.1.5 Firing Rates • 80

3.1.6 Fuel Economy • 80

3.2 Fireboxes and Combustion • 82

3.2.1 Fireboxes • 82

3.2.2 The Vanderbilt Boiler • 86

3.2.3 ­Water-Tube Boilers • 87

3.2.4 Grates • 87

3.2.5 Brick Arches • 88

3.2.6 Crownsheet Failures and Boiler Explosions • 90

3.3. Boilers and Steam Generation • 92

3.3.1 Boilers • 92

3.3.2 Water Quality • 93

3.3.3 Steam Generation • 93

3.3.4 Water Gauge Glasses • 95

3.3.5 Injectors • 96

3.3.6 Feed Water Heaters • 96

3.3.7 Superheating • 97

3.4 Smokeboxes and Drafting • 99

3.5 Cylinder Arrangements and Compounding • 103

3.5.1 Cylinder Arrangements • 103

3.5.2 Compounding • 104

3.5.2.1 Early Compound Locomotives • 105

3.5.2.2 Compounds in America • 106

3.5.2.3 Road Tests, Performance and Service Results • 109

3.5.2.4 Reappearance of the Tandem Compound • 111

3.5.2.5 The ­Four-Cylinder Balanced Compound • 111

3.5.2.6 The Mallet ­Four-Cylinder Articulated Compound • 113

3.6 Valves and Valve Gear • 113

3.6.1 Valves • 113

3.6.1.1 Slide Valves • 113

3.6.1.2 Piston Valves • 116

3.6.2 Valve Gear • 117

3.7 Frames and Running Gear • 118

3.7.1 Frames • 118

3.7.2 Accommodation to Curvature • 119

3.7.3 Suspension • 120

3.7.4 Counterbalancing • 122

3.7.5 Internal Friction • 124

3.7.6 Brakes • 124

3.8 Performance Testing and Design • 124

3.8.1 Road Tests • 125

3.8.2 Static Test Plants • 127

3.8.3 Tonnage Rating • 128

3.8.4 Design • 130

Chapter 4. Locomotive Construction, 1895–1905 • 133

4.1 Development of the 4-4-0 • 133

4.2 Fast Passenger Locomotives • 136

4.2.1 The Last 4-2-2s • 136

4.2.2 The Abortive Columbia Wheel Arrangement • 136

4.2.3 Pursuit of High Power at High Speed: The First Atlantics • 137

4.2.4 Heavy Passenger Power: The First Pacifics • 144

4.3 ­Six-Coupled, ­Multi-Purpose Locomotives • 148

4.3.1 ­Multi-Purpose ­Ten-Wheelers • 148

4.3.2 Mogul Freight Locomotives • 152

4.3.3 Further Pursuit of High Power at High Speed: The First Prairies • 154

4.4 Heavy Freight Locomotives • 157

4.4.1 Consolidations • 158

4.4.2 Mastodons • 168

4.4.3 The First Mikados • 170

4.4.4 Decapods and the First Santa Fes • 173

4.5 Switchers, Suburbans, Geared and ­Special-Purpose Locomotives • 174

4.5.1 Switchers • 174

4.5.2 Suburban Locomotives • 176

4.5.3 Geared Locomotives • 177

4.5.4 Other Unconventional Locomotives • 182

Chapter 5. Traction Other Than Steam, 1895–1905 • 186

5.1 Electric Traction • 186

5.2 Internal Combustion Traction • 188

Part Three: Transformation, 1905–1920

Chapter 6. General Steam Locomotive Development, 1905–1920 • 190

Chapter 7. Locomotive Engineering, 1905–1920 • 200

7.1 Fuels, Firing and Fuel Economy • 200

7.1.1 Coal • 200

7.1.2 Oil • 201

7.1.3 Coal Firing • 202

7.1.4 Mechanical Stokers • 203

7.1.5 Fuel Economy • 211

7.2. Fireboxes and Combustion • 212

7.2.1 Combustion • 212

7.2.2 Ash Pans • 214

7.2.3 Brick Arches • 214

7.2.4 Combustion Chambers • 216

7.2.5 Thermic Siphons • 217

7.2.6 Problems of the Staybolted Firebox • 218

7.2.7 The Wood Corrugated Firebox • 219

7.2.8 The ­Jacobs-Shupert Firebox • 219

7.2.9 ­Water-Tube Fireboxes • 220

7.2.10 Boiler Explosions • 221

7.3 Boilers and Steam Generation • 223

7.3.1 Boiler Pressures • 223

7.3.2 Water Circulation • 223

7.3.3 Boiler Washing and Water Treatment • 224

7.3.4 Superheat • 226

7.3.5 Feed Water Heaters • 232

7.4 Cylinder Arrangements, Valves and Valve Gear • 233

7.4.1 Compounding • 233

7.4.2 The End of Compounding in America • 235

7.4.3 Valves and Valve Gears • 237

7.4.4 Power Reversers • 240

7.5 Front Ends • 242

7.6 Frames and Running Gear • 244

7.6.1 Frames • 244

7.6.2 Counterbalancing • 245

7.7 Performance and Performance Testing • 246

7.7.1 Performance Testing • 246

7.7.1.1 Static Test Plants • 246

7.7.1.2 Development Work on the Pennsylvania Test Plant • 246

7.7.2 Performance Calculations • 251

7.7.2.1 Locomotive Performance • 251

7.7.2.2 Train Resistance • 252

Chapter 8. Locomotive Construction, 1905–1920 • 254

8.1 Passenger Locomotives • 255

8.1.1 Obsolescent Types: 4-4-0s, 4-6-0s, 2-6-0s and 2-6-2s • 255

8.1.2 Heyday of the Atlantics • 260

8.1.3 The 4-4-4 • 263

8.1.4 Growth of the Pacifics • 264

8.1.5 The First Mountains • 278

8.2 ­Rigid-Frame Freight Locomotives • 282

8.2.1 The Consolidation Becomes Obsolete • 282

8.2.2 Reign of the Mikados • 287

8.2.3 Decapods • 295

8.2.4 Heyday of the Santa Fe • 296

8.3 Mallets • 303

8.4 Switchers • 335

Chapter 9. Traction Other Than Steam, 1905–1920 • 340

9.1 Electric Traction • 340

9.2 Internal Combustion Traction • 342

Part Four: Superpower, 1920–1930

Chapter 10. General Steam Locomotive Development, 1920–1930 • 346

Chapter 11. Locomotive Engineering, 1920–1930 • 359

11.1 Fuels, Firing and Fuel Economy • 359

11.1.1 Coal • 359

11.1.2 Oil • 359

11.1.3 Firebox and Grate Design • 360

11.1.4 Power Stokers • 361

11.1.5 Fuel Efficiency • 363

11.2 Boilers and Steam Generation • 364

11.2.1 Steam Generation • 364

11.2.2 Pressures in ­Fire-Tube Boilers • 365

11.2.3 ­Water-Tube Boilers • 366

11.2.4 Feed Water Heaters • 371

11.2.5 Exhaust Steam Injectors • 374

11.2.6 Boiler Washing and Water Quality • 374

11.2.7 Water Gauges • 375

11.2.8 Boiler Explosions • 376

11.3 Cylinders and Valve Gear • 378

11.3.1 ­Three-Cylinder Locomotives • 378

11.3.2 Compounding • 383

11.3.3 Boosters • 384

11.3.4 ­Cut-off Control • 385

11.3.4.1 Limited ­Cut-off • 385

11.3.4.2 ­Cut-off Instrumentation • 385

11.3.4.3 Automatic ­Cut-off Control • 386

11.4 Front Ends • 387

11.4.1 Improved ­Exhaust-Blast Drafting • 387

11.4.2 Fan Drafting • 389

11.5 Frames and Running Gear • 389

11.5.1 Counterbalancing • 389

11.5.2 Frames • 390

11.5.3 Trucks • 391

11.5.4 Tandem Side Rods • 392

Chapter 12. Locomotive Construction, 1920–1930 • 394

12.1 Passenger Locomotives • 394

12.1.1 The Last ­Ten-Wheelers • 394

12.1.2 Twilight of the Pacifics • 395

12.1.3 The Mountains Hold On • 400

12.1.4 The First Hudsons • 405

12.1.5 The 4-8-4: The Ultimate ­Multi-Purpose Locomotive • 406

12.2 Freight Locomotives • 410

12.2.1 Last of the Consolidations and Decapods • 410

12.2.2 End of the Line for the Santa Fes • 411

12.2.3 The Union Pacific Type • 412

12.2.4 Mighty Mikados • 415

12.2.5 Superpower: The Berkshires • 418

12.2.6 Superpower: The Texas Type • 421

12.2.7 Coming of the Simple Mallets • 424

12.3 Switchers • 429

Chapter 13. Traction Other Than Steam, 1920–1930 • 432

13.1 Electric Traction • 432

13.2 ­Internal Combustion Traction • 433

Part Five: Finest and Final, 1930–1950

Chapter 14. General Steam Locomotive Development, 1930–1950 • 438

Chapter 15. Locomotive Engineering, 1930–1950 • 454

15.1 Fuels, Combustion, Firing and Fuel Economy • 454

15.1.1 Fuels • 454

15.1.2 Fireboxes and Combustion • 454

15.1.3 Power Stokers • 456

15.1.4 Fuel Economy • 457

15.2 Boilers and Steam Generation • 457

15.2.1 Boiler Pressures in ­Fire-Tube Boilers • 457

15.2.2 ­Water-Tube Boilers • 459

15.2.3 Boiler Maintenance and Water Quality • 462

15.2.4 Superheat • 463

15.2.5 Injectors and Feed Water Heaters • 464

15.2.6 Welded Boilers • 464

15.2.7 Boiler Explosions • 465

15.3 Steam Application, Valves and Valve Gear • 467

15.3.1 Reversing Gear • 467

15.3.2 Boosters • 467

15.3.3 Poppet Valves • 467

15.3.4 ­Steam-Turbine Locomotives • 469

15.3.5 Duplex Drive • 473

15.3.6 ­High-Pressure Reciprocating Engines • 474

15.4 Front Ends • 474

15.5 Frames and Running Gear • 478

15.5.1 Engine Beds • 478

15.5.2 Roller Bearings • 478

15.5.3 Disc Driving Wheels • 480

15.5.4 Tenders • 481

15.5.5 Counterbalancing and Effects on Track • 481

15.5.6 Streamlining and Decoration • 484

Chapter 16. Locomotive Construction, 1930–1950 • 491

16.1 ­Multi-Purpose 4-8-4s • 493

16.2 Passenger Locomotives • 504

16.2.1 Last of the Pacifics • 504

16.2.2 Triumph of the Hudsons • 506

16.2.3 The Last Mountains • 509

16.2.4 Oddities • 511

16.2.5 Duplex Drive Locomotives • 513

16.3 Freight Locomotives • 515

16.3.1 ­Eight-Coupled Locomotives • 515

16.3.2 ­Ten-Coupled Locomotives • 517

16.3.3 Mallets • 523

16.3.4 Duplex Drive Locomotives • 538

16.4 Switchers • 540

Chapter 17. Traction Other Than Steam, 1930–1950 • 543

17.1 ­Internal Combustion Traction • 543

17.2 ­Gas-Turbine Locomotives • 550

17.3 Electric Traction • 552

Conclusion • 553

Appendix A: Thermodynamics and Dimensions • 555

Appendix B: Railroad Gazette/Railroad Age Gazette/Railway Age Locomotive Type Articles • 558

Appendix C: The Cole Ratios • 571

Chapter Notes • 574

Bibliography • 610

Index • 612