Heating, Cooling, Lighting

NORBERT LECHNER, LEED AP (Chapel Hill, NC) Architect and Professor Emeritus of Architecture in the Building Science Department at Auburn University, is an expert in energy responsive architectural design with an emphasis on solar responsive design, including daylighting. He is a consultant for designing sustainable, low energy, and solar responsive buildings, and is the inventor of new types of heliodons that are invaluable for teaching and designing solar responsive buildings. PATRICIA ANDRASIK, NCARB, AIA, IIDA, LEED BD+C, LEED O+M (Washington, D.C.) Associate Dean for Undergraduate Studies and Assistant Professor in the School of Architecture and Planning at The Catholic University of America, is a licensed architect in Washington, D.C. and is internationally recognized for her research in informing design through performance metrics and using performance metrics to inform O&M.

Foreword to The Fifth Edition xiii
Edward Mazria

Foreword to The First Edition xv
James Marston Fitch

Preface xvii

Acknowledgements xix

Part I Fundamentals 1

1 Background: Architecture In A Warming World 3

1.1 Introduction 4

1.2 Indigenous and Vernacular Architecture 5

1.3 Formal Architecture 6

1.4 Architecture and Energy 8

1.5 The Architectural Approach to Low-Energy Design 11

1.6 Climate and Architecture 14

1.7 Dynamic Versus Static Buildings 15

1.8 Form, Color and Ornamentation 15

1.9 Biophilic Design 18

1.10 Resilient Design 18

1.11 Sustainability Codes and Voluntary Programs 20

1.12 The Moral Imperative 20

1.13 Conclusion 21

Executive Summary 21

Resources 22

2 Climate Change: The Key Sustainability Issue 23

2.1 Easter Island: Learning From the Past 24

2.2 Sustainable Design and Climate Change 24

2.3 Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, and Regenerate by Design 25

2.4 The Sustainability Movement 27

2.5 The Basic Causes of Environmental Problems 28

2.6 Growth 31

2.7 Exponential Growth 31

2.8 The Amoeba Analogy 32

2.9 Supply Versus Efficiency 33

2.10 Sustainable-Design Issues 33

2.11 Embodied Energy 34

2.12 Climate Change 35

2.13 The Ozone Hole 37

2.14 Efficiency Versus Renewable Energy 37

2.15 Energy Sources 37

2.16 Energy Use in Ancient Greece 38

2.17 Nonrenewable Fossil Energy Sources 39

2.18 Nuclear Energy 40

2.19 Renewable Energy Sources 41

2.20 Conclusion 48

Executive Summary 49

Resources 50

3 Basic Principles: The Physics Of Heat Flow For Heating And Cooling Buildings 51

3.1 Introduction 52

3.2 Heat 52

3.3 Sensible Heat 52

3.4 Latent Heat 53

3.5 Evaporative Cooling 53

3.6 Convection 54

3.7 Transport 54

3.8 Energy-Transfer Mediums 55

3.9 Radiation 55

3.10 Greenhouse Effect 57

3.11 Equilibrium Temperature of a Surface 58

3.12 Mean Radiant Temperature 59

3.13 Heat Flow 59

3.14 Heat Sink 60

3.15 Heat Capacity 60

3.16 Thermal Resistance 60

3.17 Heat-Flow Coefficient 61

3.18 Time Lag 61

3.19 Insulating Effect of Mass 62

3.20 Energy Conversion 63

3.21 Combined Heat and Power 63

3.22 Off-Site Versus On-Site Renewable Energy 64

3.23 The Game Changers: Heat Pumps and Batteries 64

3.24 Net-Zero Buildings 65

3.25 Conclusion 65

Executive Summary 66

4 Climate: Its Significant Impact On Buildings 67

4.1 Introduction 68

4.2 Climate 68

4.3 Microclimate 70

4.4 Climatic Anomalies 73

4.5 Climate Regions in a Time of Climate Change 74

4.6 Explanations of the Climatic Data Tables 75

4.7 Relative Heating and Cooling Loads 80

4.8 Climatic Data Tables 84

4.9 Design Strategies 119

Executive Summary 125

Resources 126

5 Psychometrics: Thermal Comfort 127

5.1 Biological Machine 128

5.2 Thermal Barriers 129

5.3 Metabolic Rate 131

5.4 Thermal Conditions of the Environment 131

5.5 The Psychrometric Chart 133

5.6 Dew Point and Wet-Bulb Temperatures 135

5.7 Heat Content of Air 136

5.8 Thermal Comfort 138

5.9 Shifting of the Comfort Zone 139

5.10 Adaptive Comfort 141

5.11 Clothing and Comfort 141

5.12 Strategies 142

5.13 Conclusion 142

Executive Summary 143

Resources 143

6 Solar Geometry: The Most Powerful Element Of Design 145

6.1 Introduction 146

6.2 The Sun 146

6.3 Elliptical Orbit 146

6.4 Tilt of the Earth’s Axis 147

6.5 Consequences of the Altitude Angle 147

6.6 Winter 148

6.7 The Sun Revolves Around the Earth! 149

6.8 The Sky Dome 149

6.9 Determining Altitude and Azimuth Angles 150

6.10 Solar Time 152

6.11 Horizontal Sun-Path Diagrams 152

6.12 Vertical Sun-Path Diagrams 154

6.13 Drawing Sunbeams 155

6.14 Sun-Path Models 159

6.15 Solar Heat Gain 160

6.16 Solar Site-Evaluation tools 165

6.17 Heliodons 165

6.18 Sundials for Model Testing 166

6.19 Conceptually Clear Heliodons 167

6.20 Solar Responsive Design Strategies 168

6.20 Conclusion 170

Executive Summary 170

Resources 171

Part II Passive Design Strategies 173

7 Passive Heating Systems: The Solar Potential Of Natural Heating 175

7.1 History 176

7.2 Solar in America 177

7.3 Solar Hemicycle 178

7.4 Latest Rediscovery of Passive Solar 179

7.5 Passive Solar 180

7.6 Direct-Gain Systems 181

7.7 Design Guidelines for Direct-Gain Systems 183

7.8 Example 186

7.9 Trombe Wall Systems 186

7.10 Design Guidelines for Trombe Wall Systems 190

7.11 Example 190

7.12 Sunspaces 190

7.13 Balcomb House 193

7.14 Sunspace Design Guidelines 194

7.15 Comparison of the Three Main Passive Heating Systems 195

7.16 General Considerations for Passive Solar Systems 196

7.17 Heat-Storage Materials 201

7.18 Other Passive Heating Systems 203

7.19 Maximizing Passive Solar 204

7.20 Conclusion 204

Executive Summary 205

Resources 205

8 Solar Rejection: Shading and Light Colors 207

8.1 Introduction to Solar Rejection 208

8.2 History of Shading and Light Colors 208

8.3 Shading Myths 213

8.4 Shading Basics 215

8.5 Fixed Exterior Shading Devices 217

8.6 Dynamic (Movable) Shading Devices 220

8.7 Shading Periods of the Year 229

8.8 Overhangs 232

8.9 Design of Horizontal Overhangs: Basic Graphical Method 233

8.10 Shading Design Strategies for South Windows 235

8.11 Shading Design Strategies for East and West Windows 236

8.12 Design of Fins on North Windows 240

8.13 Design Guidelines for Eggcrate Shading Devices 241

8.14 Special Shading Strategies 241

8.15 Shading Outdoor Spaces 245

8.16 Using Physical Models for Shading Design 247

8.17 Glazing as the Shading Element 253

8.18 Interior Shading Devices 259

8.19 Solar Heat Gain Coefficient 260

8.20 Roof and Wall Reflectivity 260

8.21 Conclusion 263

Executive Summary 267

Resources 267

9 Passive Cooling: Natural Cooling, Raising the Comfort Zone, And Heat Avoidance 269

9.1 Introduction to Cooling 270

9.2 Historical and Indigenous Use of Passive Cooling 270

9.3 Passive Cooling Systems 276

9.4 Comfort Ventilation Versus Night- Flush Cooling 277

9.5 Basic Principles of Airflow 277

9.6 Airflow Through Buildings 281

9.7 Example of Ventilation Design 291

9.8 Comfort Ventilation 293

9.9 Night-Flush Cooling 295

9.10 Double-Skin Facades and Operable Roofs 298

9.11 Radiant Cooling 299

9.12 Evaporative Cooling 304

9.13 Cool Towers 307

9.14 Earth Cooling 308

9.15 Dehumidification with a Desiccant 311

9.16 Solar Chimney 311

9.17 Conclusion 313

Executive Summary 313

Resources 313

10 Site Analysis: Orientation, Landscape and Context In Net-Zero Design 315

10.1 Introduction 316

10.2 Analysis 317

10.3 Site Selection 319

10.4 Solar Access 320

10.5 Shadow Patterns 322

10.6 Site Planning 326

10.7 Solar Zoning 328

10.8 Physical Models 332

10.9 Wind and Site Design 334

10.10 Plants and Vegetation 338

10.11 Vegetated Roofs 347

10.12 Lawns 350

10.13 Landscaping 350

10.14 Community Design 356

10.15 Cooling Our Communities 358

10.16 Conclusion 359

Executive Summary 360

Resources 360

11 Light: Color, Vision, and Perception 363

11.1 Introduction 364

11.2 Light 365

11.3 Reflectance/Transmittance 368

11.4 Color 369

11.5 Vision 372

11.6 Perception 374

11.7 Performance of a Visual Task 377

11.8 Characteristics of the Visual Task 377

11.9 Illumination Level 379

11.10 Brightness Ratios 380

11.11 Glare 382

11.12 Equivalent Spherical Illumination 385

11.13 Activity Needs 387

11.14 Biological Needs 390

11.15 Light and Health 393

11.16 The Poetry of Light 393

11.17 Rules for Lighting Design 394

11.18 Career Possibilities 395

11.19 Conclusion 395

Executive Summary 396

Resources 397

12 Daylighting: Architectural Control for Natural Beauty, Comfort, and Energy Reduction 399

12.1 History of Daylighting 400

12.2 Why Daylighting? 402

12.3 The Nature of Daylight 404

12.4 Conceptual Model 407

12.5 Illumination and the Daylight Factor 408

12.6 Light Without Heat? 411

12.7 Cool Daylight 411

12.8 Goals of Daylighting 413

12.9 Basic Daylighting Strategies 414

12.10 Basic Window Strategies 417

12.11 Advanced Window Strategies 420

12.12 Window Glazing Materials 425

12.13 Top Lighting 428

12.14 Skylight Strategies 429

12.15 Clerestories, Monitors, and Light Scoops 433

12.16 Special Daylighting Techniques 437

12.17 Translucent Walls and Roofs 439

12.18 Electric Lighting as a Supplement to Daylighting 443

12.19 Physical Modeling 445

12.20 Guidelines for Daylighting 450

12.21 Conclusion 451

Executive Summary 451

Resources 452

13 The Thermal Envelope: Keeping Warm and Staying Cool 453

13.1 Introduction 454

13.2 Heat Loss 455

13.3 Heat Gain 456

13.4 Solar Reflectivity (Albedo) 458

13.5 Compactness, Exposed Area, and Thermal Planning 459

13.6 Insulation Materials 461

13.7 The Thermal Envelope 468

13.8 Heat Bridges 473

13.9 Windows 474

13.10 Dynamic Insulation 480

13.11 Insulating Effect from Thermal Mass 483

13.12 Earth Sheltering 487

13.13 Infiltration and Ventilation 494

13.14 Water: The Enemy of Architecture 496

13.15 Radon 500

13.16 Appliances 500

13.17 Conclusion 502

Executive Summary 502

Resources 503

14 Retrofits: Energy Efficiency Upgrades for Existing Buildings 505

14.1 Introduction 506

14.2 Goals for the Energy Upgrade 506

14.3 Envelope Upgrades 506

14.4 Lighting 507

14.5 Mechanical Equipment 508

14.6 Hot Water 508

14.7 Appliances 508

14.8 Renewable Energy 508

14.9 Miscellaneous 508

14.10 Case Studies 508

Executive Summary 510

15 Tropical Architecture: Not your Temperate Architecture 511

15.1 Introduction 512

15.2 Traditional Tropical Architecture 512

15.3 The Tropical Climate 515

15.4 The Solar Geometry of the Tropics 517

15.5 Shading in Tropical Climates 521

15.6 Daylighting in the Tropics 524

15.7 Passive Cooling 525

15.8 Air-Conditioned Buildings in the Tropics 526

15.9 Conclusion 528

Executive Summary 528

Part III Active Design Strategies 529

16 Electric Lighting: To Complement Daylight and At Night 531

16.1 Introduction 532

16.2 History of Light Sources 532

16.3 Light Sources 533

16.4 Incandescent and Halogen Lamps 534

16.5 Discharge Lamps 535

16.6 Fluorescent Lamps 537

16.7 High-Intensity Discharge Lamps 539

16.8 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 540

16.9 Comparison of the Major Lighting Sources 542

16.10 Luminaires 542

16.11 Lenses, Diffusers, and Baffles 542

16.12 Lighting Systems 545

16.13 Remote-Source Lighting Systems 548

16.14 Visualizing Light Distribution 548

16.15 Architectural Lighting 549

16.16 Outdoor Lighting 552

16.17 Emergency Lighting 553

16.18 Controls 554

16.19 Maintenance 556

16.20 Rules for Energy-Efficient Electric Lighting Design 556

16.21 Laws and Standards 557

16.22 Conclusion 557

Executive Summary 557

Resources 557

17 Photovoltaics And Solar Thermal 559

17.1 Introduction 560

17.2 The Almost Ideal Energy Source 560

17.3 History of PV 561

17.4 The PV Cell 561

17.5 Types of PV Systems 562

17.6 Balance of System Equipment 563

17.7 Site-Integrated Photovoltaics 564

17.8 Glazing and PV 569

17.9 Orientation and Tilt 569

17.10 Design Guidelines 571

17.11 The Promise of PV 571

17.12 Sizing A PV System 572

17.13 The Cost-Effectiveness of PV Versus Solar Thermal Applications 573

17.14 Solar Thermal Basics 574

17.15 Solar Thermal Swimming-Pool Heating 574

17.16 Solar Hot-Water Systems 575

17.17 Passive Solar Thermal Systems 577

17.18 Solar Hot-Air Collectors 579

17.19 Preheating of Ventilation Air 579

17.20 Designing a Solar Thermal System 582

17.21 The Future of Solar Thermal 583

17.22 Conclusion 585

Executive Summary 586

Resources 587

18 Mechanical Equipment for Heating and Cooling 589

18.1 Introduction 590

18.2 Heating 590

18.3 Thermal Zones 592

18.4 Heating Systems 593

18.5 Electric Heating 594

18.6 Hot-Water (Hydronic) Heating 595

18.7 Hot-Air Systems 597

18.8 Cooling 599

18.9 Refrigeration Cycles 602

18.10 Heat Pumps 604

18.11 Geo-Exchange 605

18.12 Cooling Systems 606

18.13 Air-Conditioning for Small Buildings 609

18.14 Air-Conditioning for Large Multistory Buildings 614

18.15 Design Guidelines for Mechanical Systems 626

18.16 Air Supply (Ducts and Diffusers) 627

18.17 Ventilation 631

18.18 Energy-Efficient Ventilation Systems 633

18.19 Air Filtration and Odor Removal 636

18.20 Special Systems 636

18.21 Integrated and Exposed Mechanical Equipment 638

18.22 Low-Energy Heating and Cooling 639

18.23 Conclusion 639

Executive Summary 640

Resources 641

Part IV Integrated Design 643

19 Synergies: When the Whole Is Greater Than the Sum of the Parts 645

19.1 Introduction 646

19.2 Strategies 646

19.3 Synergies 650

19.4 Case Studies 651

19.5 Conclusion 657

Executive Summary 657

20 Integrated Design Process 659

20.1 Introduction 660

20.2 Definition 660

20.3 Differences 660

20.4 Coordination 660

20.5 Documentation 662

20.6 Conclusion 668

Executive Summary 668

Part V Tools 669

21 Codes 671

21.1 Introduction 672

21.2 Sustainability Codes 672

21.3 History 673

21.4 Current Model Codes 673

21.5 Reference Standards 675

21.6 Government Initiatives 675

21.7 Non-Governmental Initiatives 676

21.8 Conclusion 678

Executive Summary 678

22 Checklist for Designing Net-Zero Buildings 679

22.1 Introduction 680

22.2 Site Selection 680

22.3 Form 680

22.4 Plan 680

22.5 Windows 680

22.6 Daylighting 681

22.7 Shading 681

22.8 Color 682

22.9 Thermal Envelope 682

22.10 Thermal Mass 682

22.11 Glazing 682

22.12 Air Barrier 683

22.13 Passive Systems 683

22.14 Electric Lighting 683

22.15 Mechanical Equipment 684

22.16 Behavioral Controls 684

22.17 Renewable Technology 684

23 Assessment 685

23.1 Introduction 686

23.2 Global Rating Systems 686

23.3 Process 688

23.4 Conclusion 688

Executive Summary 688

24 Digital 691

24.1 Introduction 692

24.2 Building Performance Analytics 692

24.3 Methodology 692

24.4 Challenges 693

24.5 Conclusion 695

Executive Summary 695

Appendix A Horizontal Sun-Path Diagrams 699

Steps for Converting Sun-Path Charts for Use in the Southern Hemisphere 699

Appendix B Vertical Sun-Path Diagrams 711

Steps for Converting Sun-Path Charts for Use in the Southern Hemisphere 711

Appendix C Solar Altitude And Azimuth Angles 723

Appendix D Methods for Estimating the Height of Trees, Buildings, and the Like 729

D.1 Proportional-Shadow Method 729

D.2 Similar-Triangle Method 729

D.3 45° Right-Triangle Method 730

D.4 Trigonometric Method 730

D.5 Tools for Measuring Vertical Angles 730

Appendix E Sundials 733

Appendix F Sun-Path Models 743

F.1 Introduction 743

F.2 Directions for Constructing a Sun-Path Model 743

Appendix G The Water Table For Ventilation Studies 755

G.1 Introduction 755

G.2 Construction of a Water Table 755

Appendix H Site Evaluation Tools 757

H.1 Introduction 757

H.2 The Solar Pathfinder 757

H.3 The Suneye 757

H.4 The Sun Locator 758

H.5 Do-It-Yourself Solar Site Evaluator 758

Appendix I Heliodons 765

I.1 Introduction 765

I.2 The Sun Simulator Heliodon 765

I.3 The Sun Emulator Heliodon 765

I.4 The Tabletop Heliodon 766

I.5 The Bowling Ball Heliodon 769

Appendix J Tables Of R-Values 771

Appendix K Resources 775

K.1 Journals 775

K.2 Videos 775

K.3 Organizations 775

K.4 Web-Based Resources 776

Appendix L Conversion Factors between the Inch-Pound (I-P) System and the International System of Units (Si) 777

Appendix M Appendix M: Sizing A Pv Array 781

M.1 Finding the PV Array Size for a Stand-Alone Building by the Short Calculation Method 781

M.2 Example 782

M.3 Design Guidelines 782

Bibliography 785

Index 791