Heating, Cooling, Lighting

Norbert Lechner is Professor Emeritus of Architecture in the Department of Building Science at Auburn University and a registered architect in the state of Alabama. His articles have appeared in Architectural Lighting and Solar Today. He is the author of the companion book Plumbing, Electricity, Acoustics, published by Wiley.

FOREWORD TO THE FOURTH EDITION xi Edward Mazria FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION xiii James Marston Fitch PREFACE xv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii 1 HEATING, COOLING, AND LIGHTING AS FORM-GIVERS IN ARCHITECTURE 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Indigenous and Vernacular Architecture 3 1.3 Formal Architecture 5 1.4 The Architectural Approach to Sustainable Design 8 1.5 Dynamic versus Static Buildings 11 1.6 Resilient Design 12 1.7 Biophilic Design 12 1.8 Color and Ornamentation 12 1.9 Energy and Architecture 13 1.10 Climate and Architecture 14 1.11 Sustainability Codes and Voluntary Programs 16 1.12 Integrated Design 17 1.13 Decision Making 18 1.14 Conclusion 19 Key Ideas of Chapter 1 19 2 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN AND ENERGY SOURCES 21 2.1 Easter Island: Learning from the Past 22 2.2 Sustainable Design 22 2.3 Reuse, Recycle, and Regenerate by Design 24 2.4 The Sustainability Movement 26 2.5 Population and Affl uence 26 2.6 Growth 27 2.7 Exponential Growth 27 2.8 The Amoeba Analogy 28 2.9 Supply versus Efficiency 29 2.10 Sustainable-Design Issues 30 2.11 Climate Change 30 2.12 The Global Greenhouse 33 2.13 The Ozone Hole 33 2.14 Effi ciency versus Renewable Energy 34 2.15 Energy Sources 34 2.16 Energy Use in Ancient Greece 34 2.17 Nonrenewable Energy Sources 35 2.18 Renewable Energy Sources 38 2.19 Hydrogen 44 2.20 Conclusion 45 Key Ideas of Chapter 2 46 3 BASIC PRINCIPLES 49 3.1 Introduction 50 3.2 Heat 50 3.3 Sensible Heat 50 3.4 Latent Heat 51 3.5 Evaporative Cooling 51 3.6 Convection 52 3.7 Transport 52 3.8 Energy-Transfer Mediums 53 3.9 Radiation 53 3.10 Greenhouse Effect 54 3.11 Equilibrium Temperature of a Surface 55 3.12 Mean Radiant Temperature 56 3.13 Heat Flow 56 3.14 Heat Sink 57 3.15 Heat Capacity 57 3.16 Thermal Resistance 58 3.17 Heat-Flow Coeffi cient 58 3.18 Time Lag 58 3.19 Insulating Effect of Mass 59 3.20 Energy Conversion 59 3.21 Combined Heat and Power 60 3.22 Fuel Cells 60 3.23 Embodied Energy 61 3.24 Conclusion 61 Key Ideas of Chapter 3 62 4 THERMAL COMFORT 63 4.1 Biological Machine 64 4.2 Thermal Barriers 65 4.3 Metabolic Rate 67 4.4 Thermal Conditions of the Environment 67 4.5 The Psychrometric Chart 68 4.6 Dew Point and Wet-Bulb Temperatures 69 4.7 Heat Content of Air 70 4.8 Thermal Comfort 72 4.9 Shifting of the Comfort Zone 73 4.10 Adaptive Comfort 74 4.11 Clothing and Comfort 75 4.12 Strategies 75 4.13 Conclusion 76 Key Ideas of Chapter 4 76 5 CLIMATE 79 5.1 Introduction 80 5.2 Climate 80 5.3 Microclimate 83 5.4 Climatic Anomalies 85 5.5 Climate Regions of the United States and Canada 86 5.6 Explanations of the Climatic Data Tables 87 5.7 Relative Heating and Cooling Loads 93 5.8 Additional Climate Information 94 5.9 Climate Information for Other Countries 95 Data Tables for Climate Regions, United States 96 5.10 Design Strategies 130 Key Ideas of Chapter 5 137 6 SOLAR GEOMETRY 139 6.1 Introduction 140 6.2 The Sun 140 6.3 Elliptical Orbit 140 6.4 Tilt of the Earth s Axis 141 6.5 Consequences of the Altitude Angle 142 6.6 Winter 144 6.7 The Sun Revolves Around the Earth! 144 6.8 The Sky Dome 144 6.9 Determining Altitude and Azimuth Angles 145 6.10 Solar Time 146 6.11 Horizontal Sun-Path Diagrams 146 6.12 Vertical Sun-Path Diagrams 148 6.13 Drawing Sunbeams 150 6.14 Sun-Path Models 153 6.15 Solar Heat Gain 154 6.16 Solar Site-Evaluation Tools 158 6.17 Heliodons 159 6.18 Sundials for Model Testing 160 6.19 Conceptually Clear Heliodons 161 6.20 Conclusion 162 Key Ideas of Chapter 6 164 7 PASSIVE SOLAR 165 7.1 History 166 7.2 Solar in America 166 7.3 Solar Hemicycle 167 7.4 Latest Rediscovery of Passive Solar 169 7.5 Passive Solar 169 7.6 Direct-Gain Systems 171 7.7 Design Guidelines for Direct-Gain Systems 173 7.8 Example 175 7.9 Trombe Wall Systems 175 7.10 Design Guidelines for Trombe Wall Systems 179 7.11 Example 179 7.12 Sunspaces 180 7.13 Balcomb House 182 7.14 Sunspace Design Guidelines 183 7.15 Comparison of the Three Main Passive Heating Systems 184 7.16 General Considerations For Passive Solar Systems 184 7.17 Heat-Storage Materials 189 7.18 Other Passive Heating Systems 191 7.19 Maximizing Passive Solar 194 7.20 Conclusion 194 Key Ideas of Chapter 7 195 8 PHOTOVOLTAICS AND ACTIVE SOLAR 197 8.1 Introduction 198 8.2 The Almost Ideal Energy Source 198 8.3 History of PV 199 8.4 The PV Cell 201 8.5 Types of PV Systems 202 8.6 Balance of System Equipment 203 8.7 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics 203 8.8 Orientation and Tilt 205 8.9 Roofs Clad with PV 206 8.10 Facades Clad with PV 207 8.11 Glazing and PV 209 8.12 PV Shading Devices 210 8.13 PV: Part of the Second Tier 210 8.14 Sizing a PV System 210 8.15 Finding the PV Array Size for a Stand-Alone Building by the Short Calculation Method 211 8.16 Design Guidelines 213 8.17 The Promise of PV 213 8.18 The Cost-Effectiveness of PV and Active Solar Applications 214 8.19 Active Solar Swimming-Pool Heating 216 8.20 Solar Hot-Water Systems 217 8.21 Solar Hot-Air Collectors 219 8.22 Designing an Active Solar System 221 8.23 Active/Passive Solar Systems 223 8.24 Preheating of Ventilation Air 224 8.25 The Future of Active Solar 226 8.26 Conclusion 226 Key Ideas of Chapter 8 228 9 SHADING AND LIGHT COLORS 229 9.1 History of Shading 230 9.2 Shading 234 9.3 Fixed Exterior Shading Devices 236 9.4 Movable Shading Devices 239 9.5 Shading Periods of the Year 246 9.6 Overhangs 249 9.7 Design of Horizontal Overhangs Basic Method 250 9.8 Shading Design for South Windows 251 9.9 Design Guidelines for Fixed South Overhangs 251 9.10 Design Guidelines for Movable South Overhangs 253 9.11 Shading for East and West Windows 254 9.12 Design of East and West Horizontal Overhangs 258 9.13 Design of Fins on North Windows 259 9.14 Design Guidelines for Eggcrate Shading Devices 259 9.15 Special Shading Strategies 261 9.16 Shading Outdoor Spaces 263 9.17 Using Physical Models for Shading Design 267 9.18 Glazing as the Shading Element 270 9.19 Interior Shading Devices 276 9.20 Solar Heat Gain Coeffi cient 277 9.21 Roof and Wall Reflectivity 278 9.22 Conclusion 281 Key Ideas of Chapter 9 283 10 PASSIVE COOLING 285 10.1 Introduction to Cooling 286 10.2 Historical and Indigenous Use of Passive Cooling 286 10.3 Passive Cooling Systems 292 10.4 Comfort Ventilation versus Night-Flush Cooling 293 10.5 Basic Principles of Airflow 293 10.6 Airfl ow through Buildings 297 10.7 Example of Ventilation Design 306 10.8 Comfort Ventilation 307 10.9 Night-Flush Cooling 309 10.10 Double-Skin Facades and Operable Roofs 312 10.11 Radiant Cooling 313 10.12 Evaporative Cooling 316 10.13 Cool Towers 319 10.14 Earth Cooling 320 10.15 Dehumidification with a Desiccant 322 10.16 Solar Chimney 323 10.17 Conclusion 324 Key Ideas of Chapter 10 324 11 SITE DESIGN, COMMUNITY PLANNING, AND LANDSCAPING 325 11.1 Introduction 326 11.2 Site Selection 328 11.3 Solar Access 329 11.4 Shadow Patterns 330 11.5 Site Planning 334 11.6 Solar Zoning 338 11.7 Physical Models 340 11.8 Wind and Site Design 341 11.9 Plants and Vegetation 346 11.10 Vegetated Roofs 352 11.11 Lawns 355 11.12 Landscaping 355 11.13 Community Design 360 11.14 Cooling Our Communities 362 11.15 Conclusion 363 Key Ideas of Chapter 11 363 12 LIGHTING 365 12.1 Introduction 366 12.2 Light 367 12.3 Reflectance/Transmittance 370 12.4 Color 371 12.5 Vision 374 12.6 Perception 375 12.7 Performance of a Visual Task 379 12.8 Characteristics of the Visual Task 379 12.9 Illumination Level 381 12.10 Brightness Ratios 382 12.11 Glare 384 12.12 Equivalent Spherical Illumination 387 12.13 Activity Needs 389 12.14 Biological Needs 392 12.15 Light and Health 394 12.16 The Poetry of Light 395 12.17 Rules for Lighting Design 395 12.18 Career Possibilities 396 12.19 Conclusion 397 Key Ideas of Chapter 12 398 13 DAYLIGHTING 399 13.1 History of Daylighting 400 13.2 Why Daylighting? 403 13.3 The Nature of Daylight 405 13.4 Conceptual Model 407 13.5 Illumination and the Daylight Factor 409 13.6 Light without Heat? 410 13.7 Cool Daylight 411 13.8 Goals of Daylighting 412 13.9 Basic Daylighting Strategies 413 13.10 Basic Window Strategies 416 13.11 Advanced Window Strategies 419 13.12 Window Glazing Materials 424 13.13 Top Lighting 427 13.14 Skylight Strategies 427 13.15 Clerestories, Monitors, and Light Scoops 432 13.16 Special Daylighting Techniques 437 13.17 Translucent Walls and Roofs 442 13.18 Electric Lighting as a Supplement to Daylighting 444 13.19 Physical Modeling 445 13.20 Guidelines for Daylighting 449 13.21 Conclusion 450 Key Ideas of Chapter 13 450 14 ELECTRIC LIGHTING 453 14.1 History of Light Sources 454 14.2 Light Sources 455 14.3 Incandescent and Halogen Lamps 457 14.4 Discharge Lamps 459 14.5 Fluorescent Lamps 460 14.6 High Intensity Discharge Lamps (Mercury, Metal Halide, and High Pressure Sodium) 462 14.7 Solid State Lighting 464 14.8 Comparison of the Major Lighting Sources 466 14.9 Luminaires 467 14.10 Lenses, Diffusers, and Baffles 468 14.11 Lighting Systems 470 14.12 Remote-Source Lighting Systems 472 14.13 Visualizing Light Distribution 473 14.14 Architectural Lighting 476 14.15 Outdoor Lighting 478 14.16 Emergency Lighting 479 14.17 Controls 480 14.18 Maintenance 480 14.19 Rules for Energy-Efficient Electric Lighting Design 481 14.20 Laws and Standards 481 14.21 Conclusion 482 Key Ideas of Chapter 14 482 15 THE THERMAL ENVELOPE: KEEPING WARM AND STAYING COOL 483 15.1 Background 484 15.2 Heat Loss 485 15.3 Heat Gain 487 15.4 Solar Reflectivity (Albedo) 489 15.5 Compactness, Exposed Area, and Thermal Planning 490 15.6 Insulation Materials 493 15.7 The Thermal Envelope 498 15.8 Heat Bridges 505 15.9 Windows 508 15.10 Movable Insulation 512 15.11 Insulating Effect From Thermal Mass 513 15.12 Earth Sheltering 515 15.13 Infi ltration and Ventilation 519 15.14 Moisture Control 521 15.15 Radon 524 15.16 Appliances 525 15.17 Conclusion 526 Key Ideas of Chapter 15 526 16 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT FOR HEATING AND COOLING 529 16.1 Introduction 530 16.2 Heating 530 16.3 Thermal Zones 532 16.4 Heating Systems 532 16.5 Electric Heating 534 16.6 Hot-Water (Hydronic) Heating 535 16.7 Hot-Air Systems 537 16.8 Cooling 540 16.9 Refrigeration Cycles 541 16.10 Heat Pumps 542 16.11 Geo-Exchange 543 16.12 Cooling Systems 545 16.13 Air-Conditioning for Small Buildings 548 16.14 Air-Conditioning for Large Multistory Buildings 552 16.15 Design Guidelines for Mechanical Systems 562 16.16 Air Supply (Ducts and Diffusers) 563 16.17 Ventilation 566 16.18 Energy-Efficient Ventilation Systems 568 16.19 Air Filtration and Odor Removal 570 16.20 Special Systems 570 16.21 Integrated and Exposed Mechanical Equipment 572 16.22 Low Energy Heating and Cooling 573 16.23 Conclusion 573 Key Ideas of Chapter 16 574 17 TROPICAL ARCHITECTURE 577 17.1 Introduction 578 17.2 Traditional Tropical Architecture 578 17.3 The Tropical Climate 583 17.4 The Solar Geometry of the Tropics 583 17.5 Shading in Tropical Climates 587 17.6 Daylighting in the Tropics 589 17.7 Passive Cooling 589 17.8 Air-Conditioned Buildings in the Tropics 590 17.9 Conclusion 593 Key Ideas of Chapter 17 594 18 RECOMMENDED LOW ENERGY CASE STUDIES 595 18.1 Introduction 596 18.2 Case Studies 596 19 CHECKLIST FOR DESIGNING INTEGRATED SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS 599 19.1 Introduction 600 19.2 Site Selection 600 19.3 Form 600 19.4 Plan 600 19.5 Windows 600 19.6 Daylighting 601 19.7 Shading 601 19.8 Color 601 19.9 Thermal Envelope 602 19.10 Thermal Mass 602 19.11 Glazing 602 19.12 Air Barrier 603 19.13 Passive Systems 603 19.14 Electric Lighting 603 19.15 Mechanical Equipment 603 APPENDIX A HORIZONTAL SUN-PATH DIAGRAMS 605 APPENDIX B VERTICAL SUN-PATH DIAGRAMS 617 APPENDIX C SOLAR ALTITUDE AND AZIMUTH ANGLES 629 APPENDIX D METHODS FOR ESTIMATING THE HEIGHT OF TREES, BUILDINGS, ETC. 635 D.1 Proportional-Shadow Method 635 D.2 Similar-Triangle Method 635 D.3 45 Right-Triangle Method 636 D.4 Trigonometric Method 636 D.5 Tools for Measuring Vertical Angles 636 APPENDIX E SUNDIALS 639 APPENDIX F SUN-PATH MODELS 649 F.1 Introduction 649 F.2 Directions for Constructing a Sun-Path Model 649 APPENDIX G THE WATER TABLE FOR VENTILATION STUDIES 659 G.1 Introduction 659 G.2 Construction of a Water Table 659 APPENDIX H SITE EVALUATION TOOLS 661 H.1 Introduction 661 H.2 The Solar Pathfinder 661 H.3 The SunEye 661 H.4 The Sun Locator 663 H.5 Do-It-Yourself Solar Site Evaluator 663 APPENDIX I HELIODONS 669 I.1 Introduction 669 I.2 The Sun Simulator Heliodon 669 I.3 The Sun Emulator Heliodon 669 I.4 The Tabletop Heliodon 670 I.5 The Bowling Ball Heliodon 673 APPENDIX J TABLES OF R-VALUES 675 APPENDIX K RESOURCES 679 K.1 Books 679 K.2 Journals 679 K.3 Videos 679 K.4 Organizations 680 K.5 Web-Based Resources 681 APPENDIX L CONVERSION FACTORS BETWEEN THE INCH-POUND (I-P) SYSTEM AND THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) 683 BIBLIOGRAPHY 687 INDEX 693