Keratin as a Protein Biopolymer (eBook)

Dr. Swati Sharma has completed her PhD. from University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia in 2018. She worked as a visiting researcher in college of life and environmental sciences at Konkuk University, Seoul South Korea. Dr. Sharma has completed her masters (M.Sc.) in 2013 from Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni Solan H.P. India. She has also worked as program co-coordinator at Himalayan action research center Dehradoon and Senior research fellow at India agricultural research institute in 2013-2014. Dr. Sharma has published her research papers in reputed international journals. Presently, Dr. Sharma's research is in the field of bioplastics, hydrogels, keratin nanofibres and nanoparticles, biodegradable polymers and polymers with antioxidant and anti-cancerous activities and sponges. Dr. Ashok Kumar, is working as an Assistant professor in Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India. He has completed his Ph.D. in Biotechnology from Department of Biotechnology, Himachal Pradesh University, Summer Hill, Shimla, India in 2013. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow in State Key laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan China for two years, 2014-2016. He also worked as Post Doctoral research associate at Konkuk University Seoul South Korea for 2016-2017. Dr. Ashok has keen interest in enzyme immobilization, biomaterials, biopolymers, nanobiotechnology, biocatalysis, waste management, biomass degradation, biofuel synthesis, gene cloning, characterization and biotransformation. Dr. Ashok has published 44 research papers in various internationally reputed journals and 11 book chapters.

Preface 6
Contents 8
About the Editors 9
Abbreviations 11
1 Keratin: An Introduction 14
1 Introduction 15
2 Chemical Composition and Occurrence of Keratin 17
3 Keratin Sources 18
4 Applications of the Keratin Protein 19
5 Conclusion 24
References 25
2 Keratin Production and Its Applications: Current and Future Perspective 32
1 Introduction 33
2 Structure and Classification of Keratin 34
2.1 ?- and ?-Keratins 34
3 Sources of Keratin 36
3.1 Feather, Beaks, Wool, and Hair 36
3.2 Stratum Corneum, Horns, and Hooves 37
3.3 Epidermis of Testudines and Nails 38
4 Various Methods Used for the Keratin Production and Degradation 38
4.1 Hydrolysis of ?- and ?-Keratins by Bacterial Cultures 38
4.2 Production of Keratin Using Alkaline Hydrolysis 39
4.3 Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) for Keratin Degradation 41
5 Industrial and Clinical Applications of Keratins 41
5.1 Alkali and Hydrothermal Treatment 42
5.2 Use of Keratin in Leather Industries 42
5.3 Keratin in Drug Delivery System 42
5.4 Keratin in Surgery and Repairing 43
6 Conclusion and Important Aspects 43
References 44
3 Extraction and Characterization of Keratin from Different Biomasses 48
1 Introduction 49
2 Keratinous Biomasses Availability 50
3 Extraction Methods Based on Protein Denaturation 52
3.1 Reductive Methods 52
3.2 Oxidative Methods 56
3.3 Methods Based on Sulphitolysis 57
4 Comparison of Keratins Obtained from Different Biomasses 59
5 Extraction Methods Based on Protein Degradation 60
5.1 Alkaline Extraction 60
5.2 Enzymatic and Microbial Methods 66
5.3 Dissolution in Ionic Liquids 73
5.4 Other Green Methods 77
6 Conclusion 81
References 83
4 Keratin Processing 90
1 Keratin Solutions 90
2 Casting 97
2.1 Solvent Cast Process 97
2.2 Keratin Films 99
2.3 Improving Keratin Films Properties: Crosslinking and Blending 102
2.4 Keratin Films Applications: Focus on Biomedical Field 104
3 Foaming and Freeze-Drying 106
3.1 Foam Technology and Lyophilization 106
3.2 Keratin Sponges Characterization 107
3.3 Effects of Freeze-Drying Conditions on Keratin Sponges 108
3.4 Keratin Sponges: Not Only Lyophilization 110
3.5 Keratin Sponges Applications: Focus on Biomedical Field 110
4 Spinning 112
5 Electrospinning 114
5.1 Keratin Nanofibers for Biomedical Applications 116
5.2 Keratin Nanofibers for Filtration and Pollutant Removal 118
6 Chemical Modifications 120
7 Conclusions 125
References 125
5 Degradation of Keratin Biomass by Different Microorganisms 135
1 Introduction 136
2 Structure and Chemical Composition of Keratin 137
3 Keratin Degradation by Microorganisms 138
3.1 Degradation by Bacteria 138
3.2 Degradation by Fungi 146
3.3 Degradation by Actinomycetes 148
4 Mechanism of Keratin Degradation by Microorganisms 149
5 Keratinases 150
5.1 Overview on Production of Keratinase 150
5.2 Optimization of Production of Keratinase 152
5.3 Effect of Mutation on Keratinase-Producing Microorganisms 153
5.4 Effect of DNA Recombinant Technology on Keratinase-Producing Microorganisms 153
5.5 Physicochemical Properties of Keratinases 154
6 Applications of Keratinases 157
6.1 Keratin Waste Management 157
6.2 Animal Feed Production 158
6.3 Production of Nitrogen Fertilizer/Biofertilizer 159
6.4 Leather Processing Industry 160
6.5 Detergent Industry 161
6.6 Textile Industry 162
6.7 Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Applications 163
6.8 Nanobiotechnology and Other Applications of Keratinases 164
7 Conclusion 165
References 165
6 Keratin as a Biopolymer 175
1 Introduction 176
2 Structure and Characteristics 177
3 Sources of Keratin 177
4 Extraction of Keratin 180
5 Application as Biosorbent 182
6 Keratin in Biomedical Applications: Treatment of Wounds 184
7 Cosmetics and Thermoplastic 188
8 Conclusions 191
References 191
7 Keratin-Based Biofilms, Hydrogels, and Biofibers 198
1 Introduction 198
2 Intermediate Filaments 199
3 Keratin Structure 200
3.1 ?-Keratin 200
3.2 ?-Keratin 200
4 Biosynthesis of Keratin and Keratinous Materials 201
4.1 Solubilization of Keratin 201
5 Applications of Keratin-Based Biomaterials 204
5.1 Hydrogels and Thin Films 204
5.2 Keratin Biofibers 205
6 Conclusion 208
References 208
8 Keratin-Based Biotechnological Applications 212
1 Introduction 213
2 Application of Keratin-Based Biomaterial 216
2.1 Tissue Engineering and Biomedical Application 216
2.2 Wound Dressing 218
2.3 Food and Nonfood Packaging Material 223
2.4 Bio-cement for Hard Tissue Engineering 225
2.5 Bio-ink for 3D Printer 226
2.6 Other Applications 227
3 Conclusions 228
References 228