Connected Vehicles (eBook)

Contents 6
Introduction 7
Introduction 7
List of Chapters 10
Positioning 10
Human Machine Interface 11
A Security Credential Management System for V2X Communications 12
V2V Vehicle Safety Communication 12
Vehicle to Infrastructure Communications 13
Cooperative Vehicle to Pedestrian Safety System 14
5.9 GHz Spectrum Sharing 14
Efficient and High Fidelity DSRC Simulation 15
Applications of Connectivity in Automated Driving 15
Positioning 17
Introduction 17
Motivation 17
Positioning Requirements for Intelligent Transportation Systems 18
GNSS Principles 19
What Is GPS? 19
Trilateration and Triangulation Concepts 19
Basic Operation of GPS Positioning 21
GPS Architecture 22
Other GNSS Systems 25
Performance 27
Further Resources 27
Basic GNSS Positioning in Cooperative Vehicles 27
Positioning Device in Vehicle Architecture 28
Positioning Provisions of Communication Protocol 28
Positioning Data Flow in a Connected Vehicle 29
Positioning Data in DSRC Message Set 31
Path History 31
GNSS Performance and High-Accuracy Methods 31
Concepts 31
Representing Earth: Ellipsoid, Geoid, Terrain, and Heights 31
Latitude, Longitude, Ellipsoidal Height 34
Different Datums 34
Map Projections 35
Time 36
Signals 38
Code Measurement 40
Carrier Phase Measurement 42
Calculation of Position and Time 42
Doppler Effect and Velocity Calculation 44
Errors 46
Satellite Clock 46
Satellite Orbit 46
Ionospheric Delay 47
Tropospheric Delay 47
Multipath 47
Receiver Noise 48
Error Corrections Through High Accuracy Methods 48
Differential GPS (DGPS) 49
Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS 49
Precise Point Positioning (PPP) 50
Performance Comparison 50
Further Resources 50
Multi-Sensor Fusion for Robust and Accurate Positioning 51
Concept 51
Sensors 52
Inertial 52
Ranging 53
Vision 54
Maps 55
Algorithms 55
Kalman Filter 56
Particle Filter 58
Bundle Adjustment 61
Conclusions 63
References 63
Human Machine Interaction 65
Introduction 65
What Is HMI and Why Is It Important? 66
HMI for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems 67
Physical and Cognitive Factors Related with HMI 70
Human Senses 70
Vision 71
Hearing 72
Touch 73
Other Senses 74
Human Instincts and Learned Responses 74
Cognitive Workload 75
Multimodal HMI and Spatial Matching 76
Connected Vehicles and HMI 77
Safety Application Illustration: Intersection Movement Assist 77
Reducing the Number of Warnings 80
Verifying the Effectiveness of Warnings 82
General Conclusions 85
References 85
ASecurityCredentialManagementSystemforV2XCommunications 89
Introduction 89
Requirements for a V2X Communications Security System 90
The Concept of the Security Credential Management System 91
Overview 92
Components 94
Organizational Separation 95
SCMS Use Cases 96
Bootstrapping 97
Certificate Provisioning 99
Removing Misbehaving Devices 103
Revocation and Blacklisting 106
Elector-Based Root Management 108
Discussion of Alternatives to the SCMS Concept 110
Symmetric Key Management 110
PKI Solutions 110
Group Signatures 111
Static Group Signature Schemes 112
Dynamic Group Signature Schemes 113
Group Signature Schemes with Verifiable Opening 113
Group Signatures with Distributed Authorities 114
Group Signatures with Special Properties 114
Disadvantages of Group Signatures 115
Vehicle-Based Security System 115
Message Authentication 115
Architecture 116
Group Management 118
Comparison VBSS and SCMS 118
Conclusions 119
References 120
V2V Vehicle Safety Communication 122
Introduction 122
NHTSA's V2V NPRM 124
Transmission Requirements 124
V2V Basic Safety Message (BSM) Content 125
Security and Privacy in V2V Communication 127
DSRC Protocol Stack and Underlying Standards 127
IEEE 1609.0: Guide for Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments (WAVE) Architecture 128
IEEE 1609.2: Security Services for Applications and Management Messages 128
IEEE 1609.3: Network Services 129
IEEE 1609.4: Multi-Channel Operations 129
IEEE 1609.12: Identifier Allocations 129
IEEE 802.11p: Medium Access Control and Physical Layer Specifications for WAVE 129
SAE J2735: DSRC Message Set Dictionary 129
SAE J2945/1: On-Board System Requirements for V2V Safety Communications 130
System Architecture 130
Program Flow and Required Components for V2V Safety Applications 131
Path History 132
Host Vehicle Path Prediction (HVPP) 133
Target Classification (TC) 135
Lateral and Longitudinal Offset Computation 136
RV Zone Classification Relative to the HV 139
Predicted Delta Heading and Classification of RV Direction of Travel Relative to the HV 140
Improvements in Lateral Offset Computation by Using Path History 142
V2V Safety Applications 145
Forward Collision Warning (FCW) 145
Electronic Emergency Brake Light (EEBL) 146
Intersection Movement Assist (IMA) 148
Do Not Pass Warning (DNPW) 151
Blind-Spot Warning (BSW)/Lane-Change Warning (LCW) 153
Left Turn Assist (LTA) 156
Control Loss Warning (CLW) 158
References 160
Vehicle to Infrastructure Communications 161
V2I Overview 161
V2I Messages 162
MapData (MAP) 163
Message Structure 163
Signal Phase and Time (SPaT) 164
Message Structure 165
Traveler Information Message (TIM) 167
Message Structure 167
Basic Information/Infrastructure Message (BIM) 168
Message Structure 169
Use Cases and Application Concepts 170
Red Light Violation Warning (RLVW) 170
Concept of Operation 170
Curve Speed Warning (CSW) 171
Concept of Operation 172
Reduced Speed Work Zone Warning (RSZW) 173
Concept of Operation 174
Stop Sign Gap Assist (SSGA) 174
Pedestrian in Signalized Crosswalk (PCW) 174
Spot Weather Impact Warning (SWIW) 175
Oversize Vehicle Warning (OVW) 175
Railroad Crossing Violation Warning (RCVW) 176
V2I Deployment Activities in the U.S. 176
Safety Pilot Model Deployment (SPMD) 176
Connected Vehicle Pilot Program 178
New York City DOT (NYCDOT) Pilot 178
Tampa-Hillsborough Expressway Authority (THEA) Pilot 179
Wyoming DOT (WYDOT) Pilot 180
Smart City of Columbus (SCC) 182
References 182
Cooperative Vehicle to Pedestrian Safety System 184
Introduction 184
Motivation 184
Comparison of DSRC and Vision V2P 187
V2P System Architecture 189
Vehicle System Design 189
Smartphone System Design 189
Firmware and Driver Modifications 191
Services 191
V2P Messaging 192
V2P Algorithm in the Vehicle 194
Vehicle Warning Strategy 194
Test Setup 196
Results 197
Communication Performance 197
Application Performance 199
Future Work 201
Positioning Accuracy Enhancement 201
False Alarm Suppression 202
Spectrum and Channel Congestion: Potential Crash Warning Options 202
Conclusion 203
References 204
5.9 GHz Spectrum Sharing 205
Introduction 205
Interference Avoidance Techniques Used for Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) 207
Clear Channel Assessment 207
Dynamic Frequency Selection 208
5.9 GHz Band Spectrum Sharing 208
Interference Types 209
Co-channel Interference 209
Cross-Channel Interference 210
Interference Mitigation Approaches Designed for ITS Bands 211
Proposal 1: Detect and Avoid (DAA) 212
Proposal 2: Sharing Using Modified DSRC Channelization (Re-channelization) 214
Conclusion 216
References 217
Efficient and High Fidelity DSRC Simulation 219
Introduction 219
Wireless Channel Models 220
Node Model 222
Mobility and Environment Models 223
Node Model 223
Frame Structure 224
Receiver Frame Processing Model 225
Interference Model 225
PHY State 227
Frame Detection and Decoding Steps 228
Frame Capture Feature 231
Frame Capture Scenarios 231
Frame Capture Implementation 232
Threshold Value Selection 234
Channel Model 235
Channel Model Components 236
Large-Scale Path-Loss Model 236
Fading Model 238
Channel Model Chaining 238
Receiver Frame Process Model Validation 239
Verification of Frame Capture Implementation 239
Overall Receiver Model Validation 241
Conclusion 243
References 244
Applications of Connectivity in Automated Driving 246
System Model 246
Sensor Setup 246
State Vector Representation 248
Measurement Vector Representation 251
Coordinate Systems 252
Cooperative Localization and Mapping Fusion Algorithm 253
Cooperative Localization Subsystem 253
Tracking and Synchronization 255
Multi-Sensor Multi-Target Track Association (MTA) 256
Data Fusion (DF) 257
Cooperative Mapping Subsystem 258
Process Model 258
Measurement Models 259
Experiment Set-Up 262
Test Vehicle, Equipment, and Data Collection 262
Test Route and Reference Road Geometry 262
Ground Truth Calculation 263
Performance Evaluation and Results 264
Performance Metrics and Parameters 265
Results 266
References 271