Carbon Fibers (eBook)

Soo-Jin PARK is a professor in the department of chemistry at Inha University. He received his Ph.D. in 1992 carried out under the supervision of Prof. Jean-Baptiste DONNET from Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), France. His research interests include carbon materials for energy conversion and storage, curing catalysts and polymer-carbon composites, green adsorption device with porous carbons, and so on.

Preface 6
Contents 8
1 History and Structure of Carbon Fibers 14
Abstract 14
1.1 Introduction 14
1.2 Origin and History of Carbon Fibers 17
1.3 Definition of Carbon Fibers 18
1.4 Classification of Carbon Fibers 19
1.4.1 Performance 19
1.4.2 Precursor 21
1.4.3 Commercial Availability 29
1.5 Structure of Carbon Fibers 31
1.6 State of Carbon Fiber Industry 34
1.6.1 Technology Development Trends 34
1.6.2 Utility Development Trends 35
1.6.3 Market Trends 37
1.7 Summary 40
References 40
2 Precursors and Manufacturing of Carbon Fibers 44
Abstract 44
2.1 Introduction 44
2.2 Acrylic Precursors 45
2.2.1 PAN Precursors 46
2.2.2 Polymerization Methods for Production of PAN-Based Precursors 48
2.2.3 Manufacture of Carbon Fibers from PAN-Based Precursors 49
2.2.4 Types of Polyacrylonitrile-Based Carbon Fibers 57
2.3 Cellulosic Precursors 57
2.3.1 Cellulosic Precursors 57
2.3.2 Rayon Precursor for Production of Cellulose-Based Carbon Fibers 59
2.3.3 Manufacture of Carbon Fibers from Cellulosic Precursors 64
2.4 Pitch Precursors 67
2.4.1 Petroleum Pitch Precursors 67
2.4.2 Coal-Tar Pitch Precursors 68
2.4.3 Preparation Methods of Pitch-Based Precursors 69
2.4.4 Manufacture of Carbon Fibers from Pitch-Based Precursors 73
2.5 Other Forms of Precursors 75
2.6 Summary 76
References 76
3 Matrices for Carbon Fiber Composites 81
Abstract 81
3.1 Thermosetting Resins 81
3.1.1 Introduction 81
3.1.2 Cyanate Ester Resins 82
3.1.3 Epoxy Resins 84
3.1.3.1 Bisphenol-A/F Epoxy Resins 84
3.1.3.2 Cycloaliphatic Epoxy Resins 85
3.1.3.3 Trifunctional Epoxy Resins 86
3.1.3.4 Tetrafunctional Epoxy Resins 86
3.1.3.5 Novolac Resins 87
3.1.3.6 Novolac Epoxy Resins 88
3.1.3.7 Epoxy Diluents 88
3.1.3.8 Epoxy Curing Agents 88
3.1.3.9 Curing Process 89
3.1.3.10 Curing Mechanism 90
3.1.4 Phenolic Resins 91
3.1.4.1 Resol Resins 91
3.1.4.2 Novolac Resins 92
3.1.5 Polyester Resins 94
3.1.6 Polyimide Resins 97
3.1.7 Vinyl Ester Resins 99
3.2 Thermoplastic Resins 101
3.2.1 Introduction 101
3.2.2 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Resins 101
3.2.3 Polyamide Resins 102
3.2.4 Polycarbonate Resins 103
3.2.5 Polyetheretherketone Resins 104
3.2.6 Polyetherimide Resins 106
3.2.7 Polyethersulfone Resins 106
3.2.8 Polyethylene Resins 108
3.2.9 Polyphenylene Sulfide Resins 109
3.2.10 Polypropylene Resins 110
References 112
4 Surface Treatment and Sizing of Carbon Fibers 116
Abstract 116
4.1 Introduction 116
4.2 Oxidation of Carbon Fibers 117
4.2.1 Gaseous Oxidants 117
4.2.2 Acid Oxidation 124
4.2.3 Electrochemical Oxidation 128
4.2.4 Treatment with Nonoxidative Agents 131
4.3 Plasma Treatment 131
4.4 Other Surface Modification Methods 133
4.4.1 Radiation 133
4.4.2 Fluorination 135
4.4.3 Polymer Coating 139
4.4.4 Grafting with Inorganic Materials 139
4.5 Sizing 141
References 144
5 Testing of Carbon Fibers and Their Composites 149
Abstract 149
5.1 Introduction 149
5.2 Evaluation of Carbon Fibers 149
5.2.1 Introduction 149
5.2.2 Elemental Analysis 150
5.2.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 150
5.2.4 X-Ray Diffraction 154
5.2.5 Raman Spectroscopy 156
5.2.6 Auger Electron Spectroscopy 157
5.2.7 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) 158
5.2.8 Atomic Force Microscopy 158
5.2.9 Titration 161
5.2.10 Moisture Content 161
5.2.11 Thermal Stability and Oxidative Resistance 161
5.2.12 Filament Diameter 162
5.2.13 Electrical Resistivity 166
5.2.14 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 167
5.2.15 Thermal Conductivity 169
5.2.16 Specific Heat 169
5.2.17 Thermal Transition Temperature 169
5.2.18 Tensile Properties 170
5.3 Evaluation of Composites 170
5.3.1 Introduction 170
5.3.2 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 171
5.3.3 Thermal Conductivity 171
5.3.4 Poisson’s Ratio 172
5.3.5 Rheological Analysis 172
5.3.6 Tensile Behavior 175
5.3.7 Shear Strength 176
5.3.7.1 Interlaminar Shear Strength 177
5.3.7.2 Interfacial Shear Strength 178
5.3.8 Flexural Behavior 179
5.3.9 Uniaxial Compressive Behavior 180
5.4 Fatigue 181
5.4.1 Creep 183
5.4.2 Impact Behavior 184
5.4.3 Fracture Toughness 185
5.5 Relationship Between Surface and Interfacial Properties in Composites 187
5.5.1 Surface Free Energy and Work of Adhesion 187
5.5.2 Surface Free Energy Analysis Using Linear Fit Method 188
5.5.3 Weibull Distribution 190
References 192
6 Manufacture of Carbon Fiber Composites 195
Abstract 195
6.1 Selection of Manufacturing Process for Carbon Fiber Composites 195
6.2 Type of Reinforcement 196
6.2.1 Multiend and Single-End Rovings 197
6.2.2 Mats 197
6.2.3 Woven, Stitched, and Braided Fabrics 197
6.2.4 Unidirectional 199
6.2.5 Sandwich Construction 200
6.2.6 Prepregs 201
6.3 Type of Matrix 201
6.3.1 Polymer Matrix Selection 201
6.3.2 Overview of Polymers 203
6.3.3 Properties of Polymers 204
6.3.3.1 Thermal Properties 204
6.3.3.2 Tension and Compression 205
6.3.4 Polymer Chemistry 206
6.3.4.1 Thermoset Resins 207
6.3.4.2 Thermoplastic Resins 214
6.4 Open Molding Process 219
6.4.1 Wet Lay-Up 220
6.4.2 Hand Lay-Up 221
6.4.2.1 Laminate Materials 222
6.4.2.2 Surface Preparation and Bonding 223
6.4.2.3 Laminate Construction 223
6.4.2.4 Multi-ply Construction 224
6.4.3 Spray Lay-Up 224
6.4.4 Tape Lay-Up 226
6.4.5 Filament Winding 226
6.4.6 Autoclave Curing 227
6.5 Closed Molding Process 228
6.5.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) 229
6.5.1.1 Benefits of Using RTM 231
6.5.1.2 Current RTM Developments 231
6.5.1.3 Background to Current Developments 232
6.5.2 Light RTM (LRTM) 232
6.5.2.1 Comparison of RTM and LRTM Processes 233
6.5.3 Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding 234
6.5.4 Pultrusion 235
6.5.5 Thermoforming 237
6.5.5.1 Types of Thermoforming Molds 237
6.5.6 Vacuum Bagging 238
6.5.7 Compression Molding 240
6.5.7.1 Sheet Molding Compound (SMC) 240
6.5.7.2 Dough Molding Compound (DMC) 240
6.5.7.3 Bulk Molding Compound (BMC) 241
6.5.7.4 Meeting Demand from the 1970s Through 2012 241
6.5.8 Injection Molding 241
6.5.9 Reaction Injection Molding (RIM) 242
6.5.10 Extrusion 243
6.6 Understanding Manufacturing Process of Composites 244
6.6.1 Focusing on the Most Common 244
6.6.1.1 Raw Materials 244
6.6.1.2 Comparison of Process Methods 244
6.6.1.3 Comparison of Actual Mold Cavity of Each Process 245
6.6.1.4 Required Strengths 245
6.6.2 Distinguishing the Differences 246
6.6.3 Why Is Thickness an Issue? 246
6.6.4 Process Evolution 247
6.6.4.1 Orphan Alternative Method: RTM 247
6.7 Summary 247
References 248
7 Recent Uses of Carbon Fibers 251
Abstract 251
7.1 Introduction 251
7.2 Applications of Virgin Carbon Fibers 252
7.2.1 Activated Carbon Fibers as Adsorbents 253
7.2.2 Carbon Fibers for Energy Storage 261
7.2.3 Molecular Sieves 267
7.2.4 Catalysts 268
7.3 Applications of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Composites 268
7.3.1 Aircraft 269
7.3.2 Automobiles 273
7.3.3 Marine Applications 274
7.3.4 Wind Turbine Blades 276
7.3.5 Sports Applications 277
7.3.6 Construction 280
References 283
8 Carbon/Carbon Composites 288
Abstract 288
8.1 Manufacturing of Carbon/Carbon Composites 288
8.1.1 Liquid Impregnation Method 289
8.1.2 Chemical Vapor Infiltration Method 292
8.2 Antioxidations of Carbon/Carbon Composites 294
8.2.1 Oxygen Barrier Layer 294
8.2.2 Oxidation Inhibitor 296
8.3 Applications of Carbon/Carbon Composites 300
References 301
9 Novel Carbon Fibers and Their Composites 304
Abstract 304
9.1 Novel Low-Cost Production Technique of Carbon Fibers for General Industries 304
9.2 Novel Thin Carbon Fibers for Extreme Industries 309
9.2.1 Novel Continuous Carbon Nanofibers 310
9.2.1.1 Submicron Carbon Fibers 310
9.2.1.2 Long Carbon Fibers by Electrospinning 311
9.2.2 Novel Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Yarns 319
9.2.2.1 Carbon Nanofibers from CNT Yarns by Wet Methods 319
9.2.2.2 Carbon Nanofibers from CNT Yarns by Dry Methods 321
9.2.3 Novel Graphene Fibers 322
9.2.3.1 Strategies to Fabricate GFs from Graphite 324
9.2.3.2 Wet-Spinning Process for GFs 325
9.3 Novel Functional Carbon Fibers for Smart Composites 327
9.3.1 Novel Metal-Coated Carbon Fibers and Their Applications 327
9.3.2 Novel Electroless Metal Coating for Electric Devices 328
9.3.3 Novel Electrolytic Metal Coating for Electric Devices 333
9.3.4 Novel Nanocarbon Coating on Carbon Fibers 337
References 347
10 Prospective and Outlook of Carbon Fibers 352
Index 355