Engineering of Scintillation Materials and Radiation Technologies (eBook)

Mikhail Korzhik (Korjik) received his diploma in Physics at the Belarus State University in 1981. He got his PhD in 1991 and Doctoral Diploma in 2005 in Nuclear Physics and Optics. Since the beginning of nineties he was deeply involved in research and development of inorganic scintillation materials. He was instrumental in the development of the YAlO3:Ce technology for low energy gamma-rays detection. An important achievement has been the discovery of  Pr3+ doped scintillation media and GdAlO3:Ce and LuAlO3:Ce scintillation materials. His study promoted the understanding of scintillation mechanism in many crystals. He took part in the discovery and mass production technology development of the lead tungstate PbWO4 scintillation crystal for high energy physics application, which resulted in the use of this crystal in two ambitious experiments at LHC, CMS and ALICE and an important contribution to the discovery of the Higgs boson. He is member of the Scientific Advisory Committee of the SCINT cycle of International Conferences dedicated to scintillation materials development.Alexander Gektin received his diploma after graduating at the Physical faculty of Kharkov university. His PhD thesis (1981) was devoted to defects study in halide crystals. He got his DrSci degree in 1990 (Riga, Latvia) when he investigated the influence of high irradiation doses to crystals. During the last two decades he took part as a renowned scintillation material scientist to several international projects like BELLE, BaBar, PiBeta, CMS in high energy physics, GLAST and AGILLE in astrophysics. At the same time he has led several developments for medical imaging (large area SPECT scintillator) and security systems (600 mm long position sensitive detectors).The major part of these technology developments was transferred to different industrial production lines. At the same time he is known as an expert in the study of fundamental processes of energy absorption, relaxation and light emission in scintillation materials. He has authored more then 250 publications. He is also an Associated Editor of IEEE Transaction of Nuclear Sciences.

Preface 6
Contents 8
Contributors 10
Fundamental Studies 14
Microtheory of Scintillation in Crystalline Materials 15
Abstract 15
1 Introduction 15
2 Interaction of Charged Particle with Media 17
3 First Stage—Cascade 23
4 Second Stage—Thermalization 32
5 Third Stage—Interaction, Capture and Recombination 38
6 Conclusions 42
Acknowledgements 42
References 42
Fast Optical Phenomena in Self-Activated and Ce-Doped Materials Prospective for Fast Timing in Radiation Detectors 47
Abstract 47
1 Introduction 47
1.1 Citius, Altius, Fortius 47
1.2 The First Route 48
1.3 The Second Route 48
2 Techniques for Time-Resolved Luminescence Study 50
3 Experimental 53
4 Results 54
4.1 Photoluminescence Kinetics in PWO 54
4.2 Kinetics of Photoluminescence in Ce-Doped GAGG 57
4.3 Two-Photon Absorption 59
4.4 Free Carrier Absorption 63
Acknowledgements 64
References 64
Material Science 67
Lead Tungstate Scintillation Material Development for HEP Application 68
Abstract 68
References 73
Electronic and Optical Properties of Scintillators Based on Mixed Ionic Crystals 74
Abstract 74
1 Introduction 74
2 General Properties of Inorganic Scintillators Based on Solid Solutions as a Function of the Component Concentration 75
3 Influence of Component Distribution on Electronic Structure of Solid Solutions 81
4 Random Distribution of Substitutional Ions—Energy Gap Fluctuations 83
4.1 Affinity Between Ions of the Same Type—Short-Range Ordering and Microphase Separation 83
4.2 Affinity Between Cations of Different Types—Smooth Shift of the Energy Gap 87
4.3 Density of States Near the Bottom of Conduction Band in Mixed Crystals 89
5 Conclusion 90
Acknowledgements 91
References 91
Technology and Production 94
Raw Materials for Bulk Oxide Scintillators for Gamma-Rays, Charged Particles and Neutrons Detection 95
Abstract 95
1 Introduction 95
2 Raw Materials Purity 96
2.1 Impurities Influence 96
2.2 Units and Grades 96
2.3 Pure Raw Materials Production 98
2.4 Impurities Control 104
3 Composition and Microstructure 106
3.1 Raw Material Composition 106
3.2 Raw Materials Microstructure 108
4 Conclusions 109
Acknowledgements 110
References 110
Restart of the Production of High-Quality PbWO4 Crystals for Calorimetry Applications 114
Abstract 114
1 Introduction 114
2 The Quality of PWO-II Crystals Produced at BTCP 115
3 First Experience at CRYTUR with Small Samples 117
4 The Performance of First Full Size Crystals 117
5 The First Experience with Crystals in Panda Geometry 118
5.1 The Pre-production 118
5.2 The Achieved Performance 119
5.3 The Overall Status of the Achieved Performance 119
6 Conclusions and Outlook 120
References 123
Development of YAG:Ce,Mg and YAGG:Ce Scintillation Fibers 124
Abstract 124
1 Introduction 124
2 Experimental 126
3 Growth and Characterization of YAG:Ce,Mg Fibers 127
3.1 Growth of YAG:Ce and YAG:Ce,Mg Fibers 127
3.2 Light Output 129
3.3 Decay Time 130
3.4 Attenuation Length 130
4 Growth of YAGG:Ce Fibers 134
5 Conclusions 136
Acknowledgements 136
References 137
Modification of Plastic Scintillator for Neutron Registration 139
Abstract 139
1 Introduction 139
2 Direct Harvesting of Triplet Excited States Energy 140
2.1 Preparation of PS with Eu Complex for n/?-Discrimination 141
2.2 The n/?-Discrimination Parameter FOM 143
3 Triplet-Triplet Annihilation Use for Conversion of Triplet Excited States Energy to Light 146
3.1 Development of a PS for n/?-Discrimination with Increased Mechanical Strength 147
3.2 The PS for n/?-Discrimination Properties 150
4 Conclusion 157
References 159
Skull Method—An Alternative Scintillation Crystals Growth Technique for Laboratory and Industrial Production 160
Abstract 160
1 Introduction 160
1.1 Basic Features of the Skull Method for Scintillation Crystal Growth 161
1.2 Features of Temperature Field Formation 162
1.3 Crystal Growth Rate as the Main Technological Parameter 162
1.4 Structure of Grown Crystals 164
1.5 Functional Characteristics of the Crystals Grown by the Skull Method 166
2 Conclusions 168
References 168
MO–SiO2 and MO–SiO2–Gd2O3 (M = Ca, Ba) Scintillation Glasses 170
Abstract 170
1 Introduction 170
2 Materials and Methods 171
2.1 Glasses Synthesis 171
2.2 Samples Measurements 171
3 Glass Forming in MO–SiO2 (M = Ca, Ba) Systems 172
4 Results and Discussion 173
5 Conclusions 175
Acknowledgements 175
References 176
Composite Scintillator 177
Abstract 177
1 Introduction 177
2 Composite Scintillators as an Alternative to Homogeneous Scintillation Materials 178
3 Design of the Composite Scintillator 179
3.1 Optical Medium Materials 179
3.2 The Light Collection in the Composite Scintillator 181
3.3 Experimental Data of the Light Collection in the Composite Scintillator 184
4 Composite Scintillators Applications 186
4.1 Neutron Detection 186
4.2 X-ray Detection 188
4.3 Gamma Detectors 190
5 Composite Scintillators in High Energy Physics 192
5.1 Design of Composite Detectors for HEP 193
5.2 Materials for the Light Guide (Light Conducting Layer) 195
5.3 Radiation Tests of Materials for Composite Detector 196
5.4 Scintillation Parameters of Composite Detector 196
6 Conclusion 202
References 202
Crystalline and Composite Scintillators for Fast and Thermal Neutron Detection 205
Abstract 205
1 Introduction 205
2 Technologies 208
3 Experimental 208
3.1 Fast Neutron Detectors 209
3.2 Thermal Neutron Detectors 212
3.3 Combined Detector for Separate Detection of Fast and Thermal Neutrons in the Presence of Background Gamma Radiation 213
4 Conclusions 216
References 216
Advanced Radiation Detectors and Detecting Systems 219
Scintillation Detectors in Experiments on High Energy Physics 220
Abstract 220
1 Introduction 220
2 Inorganic Scintillation Crystals 221
2.1 Alkali-Halide Crystals for High Precision Calorimetry 222
2.2 Crystal Calorimeters for Very High Energy Colliders 226
2.3 Scintillation Crystals for Future Experiments in High Energy Physics 228
3 Solid Organic Scintillators 229
3.1 Large TOF Counters (Example—Belle TOF System) 229
3.2 Sampling Calorimeters 231
4 Liquid Xenon Scintillation Calorimeter of the MEG/MEG II Experiment 235
5 Gaseous Scintillator—Atmospheric Nitrogen 236
6 Conclusion 237
Acknowledgements 237
References 237
Calorimeter Designs Based on Fibre-Shaped Scintillators 240
Abstract 240
1 Introduction 240
2 Calorimeter Designs 241
3 Tailoring Crystal Fibres for Calorimetry 243
3.1 Attenuation Length 243
3.2 Decay Time Constants 245
3.3 Radiation Tolerance 245
4 Prototyping and Beam Tests 246
5 Discussion and Outlook 249
Acknowledgements 249
References 250
Molybdate Cryogenic Scintillators for Rare Events Search Experiments 251
Abstract 251
1 Perspectives of Cryogenic Scintillation Detectors Based on Molybdate Crystals for Search for Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay Process 251
2 Growth of Molybdate Crystals 255
2.1 Initial Charge Preparation 255
2.2 Crystal Growing 256
3 Luminescence and Scintillation Properties of Molybdates 257
3.1 Luminescence Properties of Molybdates 257
3.2 Traps in Molybdates and Their Influence on Luminescence and Scintillation Properties 260
Acknowledgements 264
References 265
Oriented Crystal Applications in High Energy Physics 268
Abstract 268
1 Introduction 268
2 Crystal-Based Collimation Concept 269
3 Crystal-Based Collimation Scheme in the Past and Present 271
3.1 Basics of the Channeling and Volume Reflection Effects 271
3.2 Simulation of the LHC Crystal-Based Collimation Experiment 273
4 New Concepts for the Future Crystal-Based Collimation 273
4.1 New Coherent Effects in Crystals 274
4.2 Double Crystal Collimation System 277
5 Conclusions on Crystal Assisted Collimation 278
6 The Crystal Structure Influence on the Electromagnetic Shower Development in the Lead Tungstate Crystals 278
7 Strong Field Effects in Crystals at High Energies 279
8 Simulations by Baier-Katkov Formula 280
9 The Simulation Approach 282
10 Discussion and Conclusion on Crystal Structure Influence on the Electromagnetic Shower Development 285
Acknowledgements 287
References 287
New Advanced Scintillators for Gamma Ray Spectroscopy and Their Application 290
Abstract 290
1 Introduction 290
2 Energy Resolution of LaBr3:Ce, CeBr3 and Ce:GAGG Crystal Scintillators in Combination with Different Type Photomultipliers, as Well as with Si-Photodiodes, to Be Used for Detection of Cosmic Gamma-Rays 291
2.1 Energy Resolution of Advanced Scintillators 291
2.2 Results of Energy Resolution of LaBr3:Ce, CeBr3 and Ce:GAGG Crystal Measurements 292
3 Scintillating Spectrometer for Long-Term Study of the Sea Level Gamma-Ray Background Variations Caused by Changes of Concentration of Radioactive Isotopes and Particle Acceleration During Thunderstorms 299
3.1 Advanced Position Sensitive Gamma Spectrometer for Gamma Ray Spectroscopy in Space and Ground Experiments 299
3.2 Scintillating Spectrometer for Measurements of Atmospheric Gamma Rays 300
3.3 Thunderstorm Ground Enhancements (TGEs) Measurements 303
References 307
Instrumentation and Applications 309
Demand for New Instrumentation for Well Logging and Natural Formations Monitoring 310
Abstract 310
1 Introduction 310
2 State of the Art for Detecting Materials 311
3 Nano-Structured Glass-Ceramics Scintillators for ?-Quanta Detection 316
4 Nano-structured Glass-Ceramics Scintillators for Thermal Neutron Detection 320
5 Scintillation Materials Operating at High Temperature 322
6 On-Surface Measurements 324
7 Cosmic Muons for Subsurface Reservoir Monitoring 328
8 Summary 329
References 330
Portal Monitoring Devices 332
Abstract 332
1 Introduction 332
2 General Issues 333
3 Baggage, Package and Goods Monitoring Devices 334
4 Vehicle and Cargo Monitoring Devices 337
5 Personal Monitoring Devices 341
6 Conclusion 343
References 346