Advances in Laboratory Testing and Modelling of Soils and Shales (ATMSS) (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 8
Keynote Lectures 14
Hydro-mechanical Behaviour of Unsaturated Argillaceous Rocks 15
Abstract 15
Introduction 15
Material and Methods 16
Material 16
Suction Control 16
Mechanical Test 18
Experimental Results 18
Effect of Suction on the Mechanical Behaviour 19
Microstructural Observations 22
Acoustic Emission Activity 22
Conclusions 24
References 24
Plastic Deformations of Unsaturated Fine-Grained Soils Under Cyclic Thermo-Mechanical Loads 26
Abstract 26
Introduction 26
A Cyclic Thermo-Mechanical Model for Unsaturated Soil 27
Constitutive Variables 27
The Three Bounding Surfaces 28
Elasto-Plasticity 29
Test Apparatuses 30
Test Soils and Specimen Preparation 31
Test Program and Procedures 32
Series A: Mechanical Cyclic Shear Tests on CDT at Various Suctions and Temperatures 32
Series B: Heating and Cooling Cyclic Tests on Loess 32
Comparisons of Measured and Computed Results 33
Cyclic Stress-Strain Relations at Various Suctions and Temperatures 33
Effects of Number of Mechanical Load Cycles on Plastic Strain Accumulation at Various Suctions and Temperatures 34
Influence of Temperature on Plastic Strain Accumulation 35
Influence of Suction on Plastic Strain Accumulation of CDT 37
Volume Change Behaviour of Loess During Thermal Cycles 37
Summary and Conclusions 39
Acknowledgements 39
References 39
Shale Capillarity, Osmotic Suction and Permeability, and Solutions to Practical Testing Issues 41
Abstract 41
Capillary Suction (Pore Water Tension) and Total Suction 41
Osmotic Suction 44
Permeability and Pressure Diffusivity 45
Consolidation Stage and Triaxial Loading Stage 46
Other Testing and Sample Handling Considerations 48
References 48
Modelling the Mechanical Behaviour of Callovo-Oxfordian Argillite. Formulation and Application 49
Abstract 49
Introduction 49
Formulation of the Constitutive Model 50
Instantaneous Response 50
Time-Dependent Response 52
Permeability 52
Comparison with Experimental Results 52
Coupled Hydromechanical Analysis of a C Excavation 53
Concluding Remarks 55
Acknowledgements 55
References 55
Intrinsic and State Parameters Governing the Efficiency of Bentonite Barriers for Contaminant Control 57
Abstract 57
Bentonite Structure 57
State Parameters 59
Validation of the Solute Transport and Swelling Model 61
Some Preliminary Comments 67
References 67
Multiscale Approach to Micro-Poro-Mechanical Modelling of Unsaturated Shales 69
Abstract 69
Introduction 69
Mathematical Model 70
Multiscale Representation of Clay-Shale 70
A Template for Homogenization: From Basic Unit (Nanometer) to Stack of Platelets (Micrometer) 71
Upscaling from Micro- to Macro-level 75
Concluding Remarks 77
Acknowledgements 77
References 77
Feature Lectures 79
Measurement of Supercritical CO2 Permeability in Porous Rock at Reservoir Conditions 80
Abstract 80
Introduction 80
Description of Test Device 81
Tests on Bentonite and Rock Samples 85
Conclusions 88
References 88
Measurement of Mechanical Properties of Thin Clay Films and Comparison with Molecular Simulations 89
Abstract 89
Introduction 89
Materials and Experimental Methods for Characterization of Hydromechanical Behavior of Self-standing Clay Films 91
Manufacturing of Samples 91
Measurement of Elastic and Creep Properties 91
Computational Methods for Characterization of Elastic and Creep Properties of Clay Particles by Molecular Simulations 92
Results and Discussion 92
Elastic Properties of Clay Films and Clay Particles 92
Creep Properties of Clay Films and Clay Particles 93
Conclusions 94
References 95
Advanced Meso-Scale Modelling to Study the Effective Thermo-Mechanical Parameter in Solid Geomaterial 96
Abstract 96
Introduction 96
Methodology and Mathematical Background 97
Modeling of Fracture Simulation by LEM 97
Modelling of Steady Heat Transport by LEM 99
Coupled Problem of Thermo-Mechanics by LEM 99
Simulation and Validation 100
Experimental Setup and Boundary Conditions 101
Simulation and Results 101
Conclusion 105
Acknowledgment 105
References 105
Identification of Local Mechanisms in Clays and Energy-Based Modelling 107
Abstract 107
Introduction 107
Material and Experimental Method 108
Discussion Around the Experimental Results 108
Mix-Clay Behaviour at the Ultimate Critical State 108
Mix-Clay Behaviour on Isotropic Path 109
Micromechanical Approach and Physical-Chemical Effects – Case of Isotropic Loading 111
Microstructural Properties and Local Equations 111
Transition from Macro to Micro on the Isotropic Loading 112
Conclusion 113
References 113
Coupled Membrane and Diffusion Testing of Active Clays for Barrier Applications 115
Abstract 115
Introduction 115
Background 116
Membrane Behavior and Diffusion 116
Method of Measurement 117
Results 118
General Trends in Coupled Membrane and Diffusion Behavior 118
Effect of Effective Stress and Void Ratio 119
Limiting Behavior 120
Summary 121
References 121
Evidences of the Effects of Free Gas on the Hydro-mechanical Behaviour of Peat 123
Abstract 123
Introduction 123
Laboratory Tests and Experimental Data 124
Material Properties and Experimental Set up 124
Experimental Programme 124
Isotropic Undrained Unloading 125
Undrained Shear 126
Interpretation and Discussion 127
Concluding Remarks 129
References 129
Unsaturated Behavior of Soils and Shales 131
Use of Psychrometers, Capacitive Sensors and Vapour Transfer Technique to Determine the Water Retention Curve of Compacted Bentonite 132
Abstract 132
Introduction 132
Material: FEBEX Bentonite 133
Methodology 134
Results 136
Summary and Conclusions 137
Acknowledgements 138
References 139
Water Content Effect on the Fault Rupture Propagation Through Wet Soil-Using Direct Shear Tests 140
Abstract 140
Introduction 140
Fault Rupture Tests Results 142
Soil Response to the Change of Water Content 142
Direct Shear Test Apparatus 142
Tests Programs 143
Direct Shear Test Results 143
Shear Stress-Strain Curves 143
Peak Strength Parameters 144
Conclusion 146
References 146
Specimen Preparation Techniques for Testing Fully and Partially Saturated Sands in Dynamic Simple Shear (DSS) Test Device with Confining Pressure 148
Abstract 148
Introduction 148
Dynamic Simple Shear w/Confining Pressure (DSS-C) Testing Device 149
Fully Saturated Sand Specimen Preparation Techniques 149
Specimen Preparation for DSS Device w/Confining Pressure 150
Saturation Setup 151
Partially Saturated Specimen Preparation Techniques 152
Resulted Values of Degree of Saturation for Different R Values 153
Problems Faced During Sample Preparation 153
Conclusion 154
Acknowledgement 154
Measurement of Vertical Strain of Compacted Bentonite Subjected to Hydration Effort on Creep Test 156
Abstract 156
Introduction 156
Soil Materials and Testing Procedure 157
Soil Material 157
Modified Creep Test Apparatus 158
Creep Test 158
Test Results 160
The vertical deformations with elapsed time 160
Conclusions 162
Acknowledgement 162
References 162
Response of Clay Rock to Moisture Change 164
Abstract 164
Introduction 164
Characteristics of Studied Claystones 164
Stress Concept 165
Laboratory Observations 166
Stress Response to Humidity Change 166
Strain Response to Humidity Change 168
Influence of Water Content on Strength 170
Moisture-Enhanced Sealing of Fractures 170
Conclusions 172
References 173
Volumetric Behaviour of Lime Treated High Plasticity Clay Subjected to Suction Controlled Drying and Wetting Cycles 174
Abstract 174
Introduction 174
Material Properties and Experimental Programme 175
Results Analysis 176
Conclusions 180
References 180
Crack Initiation and Propagation of Clays Under Indirect Tensile Strength Test by Bending Related to the Initial Suction 182
Abstract 182
Introduction 182
Material and Method 183
Material Properties and Specimen Preparation 183
Test Equipment 184
Results and Discussion 185
Analysis of the Global Behavior 185
Identification of the Local Behavior Using DIC Calculations 186
Discussion 186
Relationship Between Tensile Strength and Water Content 186
Relationship Between Tensile Strength and Suction 187
Conclusion 188
References 188
Evaluation of the Instantaneous Profile Method for the Determination of the Relative Permeability Function 190
Abstract 190
Introduction 190
Hydromechanical Formulation for Bentonite-Based Materials 191
Numerical Modelling of an Infiltration Test 192
Description of the Test 192
Features of the Analysis 193
Numerical Results 193
Evaluation of the Instantaneous Profile Method for the Determination of the Relative Permeability Function 194
Conclusions 196
References 197
Advanced Laboratory Testing 198
A Double Cell Triaxial Apparatus for Testing Unsaturated Soil Under Heating and Cooling 199
Abstract 199
Introduction 199
A Temperature-Controlled Double Cell Triaxial Apparatus 200
Calibrations of the Heating/Cooling System and Double Cell 201
Test Material, Program and Procedures 202
Volume Changes of Intact and Recompacted Loess During Heating and Cooling 203
Summary and Conclusions 204
Acknowledgements 205
References 205
A Suction- and Temperature-Controlled Oedometric Device 207
Abstract 207
Introduction 207
Description of Oedometric Device 208
Temperature Control 208
Relative Humidity Control 209
The Oedometric Cell 211
Comparison with Existing Devices 211
Results on an Unsaturated Sand 212
Conclusions and Perspectives 213
References 214
Acoustic Emission Technology to Investigate Internal Micro-Structure Behaviour of Shear Banding in Sands 215
Abstract 215
Introduction 215
Experimental Setup 216
Testing Materials and Apparatuses 216
Acoustic Emission (AE) 217
Test Result 218
Global Deformation Monitoring and Analysis 218
AE Event Monitoring and Analysis 219
Conclusion 221
References 221
Direct and Indirect Local Deformations of Sand in Undrained Cyclic Triaxial Tests by Image Analysis Technique 223
Abstract 223
Introduction 223
Test Materials, Apparatus and Procedure 224
Test Procedure of Image Analysis 225
Experimental Results and Discussion 227
Conclusions 229
References 229
A New Laboratory Setup for Phase Equilibria Studies of Methane Hydrate in Porous Media 231
Abstract 231
Introduction 231
Phase Equilibria in Pore-Space 232
Preparation 232
Results 234
Discussions 237
Acknowledgment 238
References 238
An Experimental Platform for Measuring Soil Water Characteristic Curve Under Transient Flow Conditions 239
Abstract 239
Introduction 239
Experimental Methodology 240
Soil Column Configuration 240
Moisture Profile Measurement 241
Suction Profile Measurement 242
Accumulative In/Outflow Measurement 242
Result and Discussion 242
Validation of Experimental Platform 242
Preliminary result and reflection of setup problems 243
Concluding Mark 245
Acknowledgements 245
References 245
Determining Fluid Compressibility and Soil Permeability of Quasi Saturated Sand with the Alternating Flow Apparatus 247
Abstract 247
Introduction 247
Conceptual Model of Quasi-Saturated Sands 247
The Alternating Flow Apparatus 248
Model Tests 250
Compressibility of the Water-Gas-Mixture 250
Coefficient of Permeability 251
Finite Element Simulations 252
Concluding Remarks 253
References 253
Effect of Specimen Confinement Method on Simple Shear Test of Clay 255
Abstract 255
Introduction 255
Materials, Apparatus and Procedure 256
Results 258
Summary and Conclusions 261
References 261
Hydro - Mechanical Behaviour of Shales and Stiff Clays 263
Fractal Analysis of the Progressive Failure of Shales and Stiff Clays Under Shear 264
Abstract 264
Introduction 264
Fractal Evaluation of the Degree of Cracking 265
Fractal Dimension Concept to Measure the Degree of Cracking 266
Fractal Analysis of the Degree of Cracking in a Stiff Clay Subjected to Shear 268
Conclusions 269
References 270
Recent Developments in Measurement and Use of Fully Softened Shear Strength in the USA 271
Abstract 271
Introduction 271
Virginia Tech Workshop 271
Use of Fully Softened Shear Strength in Practice 272
Laboratory Test Methods Comparison 274
Direct Shear Procedures 276
Correlations for Fully Softened Strength Parameters 276
Conclusions 278
References 278
Chemical Influence of Pore Pressure on Brine Flow in Clay-Rich Material 280
Abstract 280
Introduction 280
Experimental Methods 281
Results 282
Discussion 283
Conclusions 286
Acknowledgements 286
References 287
Development of Classification Charts for Q Index of Shale from the Parameters 288
Abstract 288
Introduction 288
Q Index 289
Discussion on Q Index Variation and Classification Charts for Shale 289
Conclusion 294
References 294
Exploring Fissure Opening and Their Connectivity in a Cenozoic Clay During Gas Injection 295
Abstract 295
Introduction 295
Air Injection Tests on Boom Clay 296
Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry 297
Micro-computed Tomography and Image Analyses 298
Quantitative Comparison of Both Techniques 299
Concluding Remarks 300
Acknowledgements 301
References 301
Profiling the In Situ Compressibility of Cretaceous Shale Using Grouted-in Piezometers and Laboratory Testing 303
Abstract 303
Introduction 303
Hydrogeologic Setting 304
Methods 304
Results and Discussion 306
Conclusions 309
Acknowledgements 309
References 309
Influence of Surface Roughness of the Fracture on Hydraulic Characteristics of Rock Mass 311
Abstract 311
Introduction 311
Coupled Shear-Seepage Test of the JAW-600 312
Composition and Function of the Test System 312
Preparation of the Fractured Samples with Different Roughness 312
Experimental Conditions 313
Experimental Procedure 314
Analysis of the Influence of Surface Roughness on Hydraulic Opening 314
Analysis of the Influence of Joint Roughness on Transmission Rate 315
Conclusions 317
Opalinus Clay Shale 319
The Role of Anisotropy on the Volumetric Behaviour of Opalinus Clay upon Suction Change 320
Abstract 320
Introduction 320
Opalinus Clay: Shaly and Sandy Facies 321
Experimental Methodology 322
Results 323
Conclusions 325
Acknowledgement 326
References 326
1D Compression Behaviour of Opalinus Clay 327
Abstract 327
Introduction 327
Tested Shale 328
Experimental Methodology 328
Results and Analysis 329
One-Dimensional Compression Behaviour 329
Conclusions 333
References 333
Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test Results of Opalinus Clay and Comparison with Caprock Shales 335
Abstract 335
Introduction 335
Methodology 336
Sample Characterization 336
Determination of Appropriate Strain Rate 336
Sampling and Testing Procedure 336
Results 338
Undrained Elastic Parameters and Strength 338
Stress-Strain Behaviour 340
Comparison with Caprock Shales 340
References 341
One Dimensional Consolidation of Opalinus Clay from Shallow Depth 343
Abstract 343
Introduction 343
Tested Material 344
Experimental Device and Techniques 344
Specimen Preparation 344
High-Pressure Oedometric Cell 345
Test Results 346
Lausen Core (Shallow Subsurface) 346
Comparison with Mont Terri Core 347
Concluding Remarks 348
Acknowledgement 349
References 349
Lessons Learned from Electron Microscopy of Deformed Opalinus Clay 350
Abstract 350
Introduction 350
Methods 351
Results and Discussion 352
Conclusion and Relevance 354
References 354
The Rock Mechanical Behavior of Opalinus Clay – 20 Years of Experience in the Mont Terri Rock Laboratory 356
Abstract 356
Introduction 356
Sampling and Conditioning of Opalinus Clay 357
In-Situ Observations and Conceptual Models 359
Conclusions and Recommendations 360
References 361
Advanced Laboratory Testing for Site Characterization and In – situ Application Studies 362
Cyclic Testing on Low-Density Chalk 363
Abstract 363
Introduction 363
Sampling and Samples Description 364
Handling 365
Test Specification 365
Observations 366
Discussion 369
References 370
Long Duration Oedometric Tests to Analyse the Creep Behaviour of Lacustrine Sediments 371
Abstract 371
Introduction 371
Geological Context 371
Instrumentation and Methodology 374
Results and Interpretations 375
Conclusions 377
References 378
Deep Soil Mixing Method for the Bio-cement by Means of Bender Element Test 379
Abstract 379
Introduction 379
Methodology 380
Testing Materials 380
Kaolin Clay 380
Bangkok Sand 380
Bender Element Test 382
Test Results 382
Conclusions 385
Acknowledgement 385
References 385
Studying of Shale Organic Matter Structure and Pore Space Transformations During Hydrocarbon Generation 386
Abstract 386
Introduction 386
Materials and Methods 387
Research Methods 387
Experimental Procedure 387
Samples Collection 388
Results and Discussions 388
Conclusions 390
Acknowledgements 391
References 391
On the Application of Microbially Induced Calcite Precipitation for Soils: A Multiscale Study 392
Abstract 392
Introduction 392
Experimental Details 393
Materials 393
Study at the Microscale 393
Mechanical Testing on Bio-cemented Samples 393
Scaling-up the Application of the MICP with Two Different Strategies 394
Strategy 1: Surface Percolation 394
Strategy 2: Mixing in a Grid of Bores 394
Results 395
Study at the Microscale 395
Mechanical Response Under Drained Triaxial Shear 395
Upscaling Strategies for the Application of MICP 396
Strategy 1: Surface Application 396
Strategy 2: Grid of Injection Points 397
Conclusions 397
References 397
Determination of Intergranular Strain Parameters and Their Dependence on Properties of Grain Assemblies 399
Abstract 399
Introduction 399
Hypoplastic Model 400
Intergranular Strain 400
Determination of Intergranular Strain Parameters 401
Stress Path Experiments 401
Material Properties 402
Sample Preparation 402
Stress Path Controlled Triaxial Test 402
Results and Discussion 404
Conclusions 405
References 405
Soil-Structure Interactions 406
Experimental and Numerical Study of the Thermo-Mechanical Behaviour of Energy Piles for Belgian Practice 407
Abstract 407
Introduction 407
Experimental Test Campaign 408
Finite Element Model 409
Comparison Between Experimental and Numerical Results 410
Conclusions 413
References 414
Drained and Undrained Analysis for Foundations Based on Triaxial Tests 415
Abstract 415
Introduction 415
Expected Behaviour of Raft Foundations in Drained and Undrained Conditions 416
Undrained Consolidated Triaxial Test on Clay 417
Test Procedure for Normally Consolidated Clay 417
Results for Normally Consolidated Clay 417
Test Procedure for Heavily Overconsolidated Clay 418
Results for Heavily Overconsolidated Clay 418
Discussion of the Test Results 419
Analytical Modelling of Raft Foundations in Undrained and Drained Conditions 419
Conclusions and Outlook 420
Acknowledgements 422
References 422
Impact of Thermally Induced Soil Deformation on the Serviceability of Energy Pile Groups 423
Abstract 423
Introduction 423
Experimental Testing 424
The Foundation and Site 424
Features of the Experimental Test 424
Numerical Modelling 425
Finite Element Model 425
Modelling Choices, Boundary and Initial Conditions 426
Classification of the Numerical Simulation and Material Properties 426
Comparison Between Experimental and Numerical Results 427
Conclusions 429
Acknowledgments 429
References 430
Numerical Analysis of Seismic Soil-Pile-Structure Interaction in Soft Soil with Strong Nonlinearity and Its Validation by 1g Shaking Table Test 431
Abstract 431
Introduction 431
1g Shaking Table Test Method 432
FEM Modelling and Numerical Test 434
Shaking Table Test Vs. Numerical Test 435
Conclusions 437
References 437
On the Interface Shearing Behavior Between Granular Soil and Artificial Rough Surfaces 439
Abstract 439
Introduction 439
Model Set-up in PFC 3D 440
Scale Effect 442
Macroscopic Response of the Soil-Structural Interface 443
Formation of the Shear Band 443
Conclusions 445
Acknowledgements 445
References 445
Constitutive and Numerical Modelling of Soils and Shales 447
Constitutive Framework for Unsaturated Soils with Differentiation of Capillarity and Adsorption 448
Abstract 448
Introduction 448
Thermodynamic Derivation and Justifications 449
General Assumptions 449
Macroscopic Mass Balance 451
Microscopic Mass Balance 452
Total Input Work to Unsaturated Soils 453
Conclusions 454
References 454
Coupled Analysis of CO2 Injection Induced Stress Variation in the Caprock 456
Abstract 456
Introduction 456
Thermal-Hydro-Mechanical Formulation 456
Conceptual Model Characteristics 459
Influence of the Thermal-Mechanical Properties on the Caprock Stability 461
Conclusion 462
References 462
Efficient Parameter Identification for THM Behaviour of Claystone Using Optimization Methods 464
Abstract 464
Project Aim 464
3D Coupled THM-Simulation of a Heater Test 464
Sensitivity Analysis 466
Parameter Identification 469
Conclusions 470
References 471
A Thermodynamic Model for Rate-Dependent Geomaterials 472
Abstract 472
Introduction 472
Formulations of the TTS Model for Rate Dependency 473
Analyses of Rate-Dependent Parameters and Simulations 475
Conclusions 478
References 479
Thermo-Viscoplastic Subloading Soil Model for Isotropic Stress and Strain Conditions 480
Abstract 480
Introduction 480
Thermo-Viscoplastic Subloading Soil Model 481
Subloading, Dynamic Loading and Yield Surfaces 482
Viscoplastic Strain 482
Hardening Laws 482
Extension to Non-isothermal Conditions 483
Heating Tests for Different OCR Values 484
Final Remarks 486
Acknowledgements 486
References 486
Numerical Simulation of Multi-phase Flow in CO2 Geological Sequestration 487
Abstract 487
Introduction 487
Governing Equations for CCS Numerical Simulation 488
Verification of the Numerical Method 489
Setup of Model A 489
Result of Model A 490
Setup of Model B 491
Result of Model B 492
Conclusion 493
References 493
Mechanics and Modeling of Cohesive Frictional Granular Materials 494
Abstract 494
Introduction 494
Experimental 495
Description of Constitutive Model 496
Results and Discussion 496
Conclusions 500
References 500
Numerical Modelling of Liquefaction Tests of Partially Saturated Sands in CSSLB 502
Abstract 502
Introduction 502
Overview of Cyclic Simple Shear Liquefaction Box (CSSLB) 502
Numerical Model of CSSLB Test Set-up on Shaking Table 503
Numerical Model of CSSLB 503
Partially Saturated Sand Analysis 505
Numerical Modelling of Cyclic Simple Shear Tests 506
Dynamic Model (Drained Conditions) 506
Numerical Analysis Results 507
Conclusion 508
Acknowledgement 508
References 509
Aspects of Thermal Fracturing of Clays with Electromagnetic Excitation 510
Abstract 510
Introduction 510
Mathematical Model 511
Electromagnetism 511
Mass, Energy and Momentum Balance 511
Coupling Mechanisms 512
Numerical Study 513
Physical Model and Input Parameters 513
Simulation Results 514
Concluding Remarks 516
Acknowledgements 516
References 517
Reproduction of Discrete Element Model by 3D Printing and Its Experimental Validation on Permeability Issue 518
Abstract 518
Introduction 518
Experimental modeling of numerical simulation 519
Research scheme 519
Numerical simulation model made by DEM 520
Modeling of DEM simulated specimen for 3D printing 520
3D printing of DEM simulated specimen 521
Reproducibility of printed DEM specimen 521
Experimental validation of numerical simulation focusing on permeability 522
Test conditions of numerical simulation and experiment 522
Comparison of permeability between numerical simulation and 3D printed material 523
Conclusion 524
References 524
Author Index 526