Clean Rooms

1. Introduction to Cleanroom Technology.- The Need for Cleanrooms.- The Contaminated World.- Manufacturing Yield and Product Reliability.- An Overview of Semiconductor Technology.- History.- Integration.- Yield and Reliability in Semiconductor Processing.- Other Cleanroom Applications.- The Impact of Cleanroom Technology.- 2. Microcontamination.- Types of Contamination.- Organic and Inorganic Substances.- Airborne Particulates.- Gases and Vapors.- Contamination in Liquids.- Sources of Contamination.- External Natural Sources.- External Industrial Sources.- Personnel.- Equipment and Facilities.- Production Materials and Processes.- Improper Work Practices.- Effects of Contamination.- Circuit Yield and Reliability.- Mechanical Breakdown.- Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Problems.- Relating Product Health to Work Force Health.- Summary.- 3. Controlled Environment Concepts.- Performance Considerations.- Cleanroom Parameters.- Ideal vs. the Real World.- Performance Standards.- Particulate Standards.- Gas and Vapor Standards.- Parameter Measurement.- Microscopic Techniques.- Light-scattering Techniques.- Other Detection Methods.- Contamination Identification.- Monitoring.- Other Parameters.- Summary.- 4. Creating Clean Areas.- Construction Materials and Techniques.- Basic Material Properties.- Wall Materials.- Floors.- Ceiling Systems.- Building Techniques.- Air Filtration.- Basic Air Filtration Theory.- Gas and Vapor Removal.- Other Contamination Reduction Techniques.- Practical Filtration Problems.- Airflow.- Turbulent Flow.- Laminar or Unidirectional Flow.- Pressurization.- Equipment and Material Decontamination.- Bringing Items into the Cleanroom.- Cleaning Techniques.- New Cleaning Technologies.- Summary.- 5. Cleanroom Layout.- Mixed Flow Rooms.- Air Delivery.- Air Return.- Local Unidirectional Flow.- Fan Units.- Workstations.- Spot VLF.- Modular Cleanrooms.- Self-Contained Systems.- Retrofit Systems.- Tunnel Cleanrooms.- Tunnel Layout.- Service Chase Configurations.- Air Supply and Zoning.- Total Vertical Laminar Flow.- Horizontal Laminar Flow.- Process Equipment.- Equipment Integration.- Services.- Designing for Cleanroom Class.- Determining Class Requirements.- Lower-, Middle-, and Upper-class Rooms.- Cleanroom Models.- Summary.- 6. Preconditioning, Control, and Static.- Air Handling Systems.- System Configurations.- Prefiltration.- Heating and Cooling.- Humidity Control.- Fans and Air Control.- Control Systems.- Controlled Parameters.- Types of Control.- Static.- Effects of Static Charge.- Sources and Detection of Charge.- Reduction by Ionizers.- Reduction by Other Means.- Summary.- 7. Site and Structural Considerations.- Vibration.- Effects of Vibration.- External Sources.- Internal Sources.- Site Selection.- Structure.- Foundations.- Reducing Vibration.- Floor Isolation.- Plant Layout.- Internal Vibration Engineering.- Plant Isolation.- Sensitive Equipment.- Vibration Practices.- Summary.- 8. Cleanrooms, Codes, and Legislation.- Principal Codes.- Building Codes.- Fire Codes.- Other Code Requirements.- Fire Protection.- Fire Systems.- Recirculation of Contaminants.- Smoke Removal.- Legislation.- Summary.- 9. Ultrapure Water.- The Need for Ultrapure Water.- Constituents of Raw Water.- Sources of Water.- Inorganic Materials.- Organic Materials.- Micro-organisms.- Purification Techniques.- Water Purification.- Deionization.- Reverse Osmosis.- Filtration.- Measurement Techniques.- RO/DI System Configurations.- Typical System Configuration.- Point of Use.- System Materials.- Operational Considerations.- Recirculation.- Changeouers.- Biocidal Treatments.- Operational Problems-1. Introduction to Cleanroom Technology.- The Need for Cleanrooms.- The Contaminated World.- Manufacturing Yield and Product Reliability.- An Overview of Semiconductor Technology.- History.- Integration.- Yield and Reliability in Semiconductor Processing.- Other Cleanroom Applications.- The Impact of Cleanroom Technology.- 2. Microcontamination.- Types of Contamination.- Organic and Inorganic Substances.- Airborne Particulates.- Gases and Vapors.- Contamination in Liquids.- Sources of Contamination.- External Natural Sources.- External Industrial Sources.- Personnel.- Equipment and Facilities.- Production Materials and Processes.- Improper Work Practices.- Effects of Contamination.- Circuit Yield and Reliability.- Mechanical Breakdown.- Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Problems.- Relating Product Health to Work Force Health.- Summary.- 3. Controlled Environment Concepts.- Performance Considerations.- Cleanroom Parameters.- Ideal vs. the Real World.- Performance Standards.- Particulate Standards.- Gas and Vapor Standards.- Parameter Measurement.- Microscopic Techniques.- Light-scattering Techniques.- Other Detection Methods.- Contamination Identification.- Monitoring.- Other Parameters.- Summary.- 4. Creating Clean Areas.- Construction Materials and Techniques.- Basic Material Properties.- Wall Materials.- Floors.- Ceiling Systems.- Building Techniques.- Air Filtration.- Basic Air Filtration Theory.- Gas and Vapor Removal.- Other Contamination Reduction Techniques.- Practical Filtration Problems.- Airflow.- Turbulent Flow.- Laminar or Unidirectional Flow.- Pressurization.- Equipment and Material Decontamination.- Bringing Items into the Cleanroom.- Cleaning Techniques.- New Cleaning Technologies.- Summary.- 5. Cleanroom Layout.- Mixed Flow Rooms.- Air Delivery.- Air Return.- Local Unidirectional Flow.- Fan Units.- Workstations.- Spot VLF.- Modular Cleanrooms.- Self-Contained Systems.- Retrofit Systems.- Tunnel Cleanrooms.- Tunnel Layout.- Service Chase Configurations.- Air Supply and Zoning.- Total Vertical Laminar Flow.- Horizontal Laminar Flow.- Process Equipment.- Equipment Integration.- Services.- Designing for Cleanroom Class.- Determining Class Requirements.- Lower-, Middle-, and Upper-class Rooms.- Cleanroom Models.- Summary.- 6. Preconditioning, Control, and Static.- Air Handling Systems.- System Configurations.- Prefiltration.- Heating and Cooling.- Humidity Control.- Fans and Air Control.- Control Systems.- Controlled Parameters.- Types of Control.- Static.- Effects of Static Charge.- Sources and Detection of Charge.- Reduction by Ionizers.- Reduction by Other Means.- Summary.- 7. Site and Structural Considerations.- Vibration.- Effects of Vibration.- External Sources.- Internal Sources.- Site Selection.- Structure.- Foundations.- Reducing Vibration.- Floor Isolation.- Plant Layout.- Internal Vibration Engineering.- Plant Isolation.- Sensitive Equipment.- Vibration Practices.- Summary.- 8. Cleanrooms, Codes, and Legislation.- Principal Codes.- Building Codes.- Fire Codes.- Other Code Requirements.- Fire Protection.- Fire Systems.- Recirculation of Contaminants.- Smoke Removal.- Legislation.- Summary.- 9. Ultrapure Water.- The Need for Ultrapure Water.- Constituents of Raw Water.- Sources of Water.- Inorganic Materials.- Organic Materials.- Micro-organisms.- Purification Techniques.- Water Purification.- Deionization.- Reverse Osmosis.- Filtration.- Measurement Techniques.- RO/DI System Configurations.- Typical System Configuration.- Point of Use.- System Materials.- Operational Considerations.- Recirculation.- Changeouers.- Biocidal Treatments.- Operational Problems-Examples.- Summary.- 10. Production Materials.- Gases.- Bulk Gas Storage and Distribution.- Cylinder Gas Use.- Monitoring and Cleaning Processes Gases.- Safety Aspects of Process Gas Systems.- Hazardous Gas Detection.- Wet Chemicals.- Bulk Chemical Storage and Distribution.- Bottled Chemical Use.- Monitoring and Cleaning Process Chemicals.- Spill Control.- Handling Other Materials.- Microcontamination Control for Solid Surfaces.- Safety Aspects of Other Materials.- Summary.- 11. Personnel and Contamination.- Apparel.- Garment Materials.- Suit Styles.- Gloves and Skin Coatings.- Facemasks.- Particle Dispersion and Apparel.- Laundering Practices.- Garment Static Control.- Advanced Suit Concepts.- Use of Apparel.- Changing Room Layout.- Garment Storage and Monitoring.- Changing Procedures.- Shoe Cleaning and Air Showers.- Work Practices.- Personnel Motivation and Training.- General Microcontamination Practices.- Cleaning the Cleanroom and Cleanroom Wipers.- Worker Stress and Related Problems.- Summary.- 12. Safety Issues.- Properties of Hazardous Production Materials.- Hazard Properties.- Basic Toxicology.- Effects of Common HPMs.- Cleanroom Safety Practices.- The Safety Team.- Formulating Regulations.- Safety Training.- Exposure Monitoring.- General Safety Practices.- Equipment Layout for Safety.- Maintenance Safety.- Emergency Response.- Safety Equipment.- Protective Clothing.- Personal Protection Systems.- Handling Hazardous Production Materials.- Safety Controls.- Gas Safety Revisited.- Wet Chemical Safety Revisited.- Disposal.- Summary.- 13. The Future of Controlled Environments.- Advanced Cleanroom Concepts.- Enclosed Transfer Systems.- Robotics and Automation.- In-situ Processing.- Epilog-The Cleanroom as a System.- Appendix 1 Federal Standard 209D.- Appendix 2 Simplified Cleanroom Certification Procedure.- Appendix 3 Program and Sample Output.