Carbon Nanoparticles and Nanostructures (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 8
1 Nanodiamonds: From Synthesis and Purification to Deposition Techniques, Hybrids Fabrication and Applications 9
Abstract 9
1 Introduction 9
2 Nanodiamonds from Different Origins 10
2.1 Detonation Synthesis 10
2.2 Synthesis of Bulk Diamond 11
2.2.1 High Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) 11
2.2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 12
2.3 Crushing of Diamond Bulk Material 13
2.3.1 From HPHT Diamond 14
2.3.2 From CVD Diamond 15
2.4 Relevant Characteristics for NDs 16
2.4.1 Purity 16
2.4.2 Shape 17
2.4.3 Size Distribution 18
2.4.4 Defects in Diamond Core 20
3 Purification of Nanodiamonds 20
3.1 Chemical Purification Methods 20
3.2 Toward Colloidal Stability of NDs 21
3.3 Attempts Towards Homogeneous Surface Chemistry 22
3.4 Specific Surface Properties Conferred by Surface Chemistry 24
4 Nanodiamonds and Surfaces 26
4.1 Deposition of NDs 26
4.2 Patterning and Seeding 28
5 Hybrids Built from Nanodiamonds 31
5.1 Core Shells 31
5.1.1 SiO2/NDs 31
5.1.2 Au/NDs 32
5.1.3 Au/SiO2/NDs 32
5.1.4 NIPAM/NDs 33
5.2 Decoration of Nanodiamonds 34
5.2.1 Carbon Dots 34
5.2.2 Metal Atoms 34
6 Applications of Diamond Nanoparticles: An Overview 35
6.1 Composites 35
6.1.1 Polymers 35
6.1.2 Lubricants 36
6.2 Bio-applications 37
6.2.1 Drug Delivery 37
6.2.2 Bio-imaging 38
6.2.3 Tissue Engineering 38
7 Conclusion and Perspectives 39
Acknowledgments 40
References 40
2 One-Dimensional Carbon Nanostructures: Low-Temperature Chemical Vapor Synthesis and Applications 54
Abstract 54
1 Introduction 54
2 Synthesis of 1D Carbon Nanostructure at Low Temperatures 57
2.1 Types of Catalysts 58
2.2 Catalyst Faceting 60
2.3 Gas Composition 63
2.4 Structural Characteristic of the Carbon Nanostructure Synthesized at Low-Temperature 64
3 Morphology Control 65
4 Mechanism of Low-Temperature Thermal CVD Growth 67
4.1 Fundamental Reactions 68
4.2 Feedstock Transportation/Diffusion Route 69
4.3 VFS Mechanism 70
4.4 The Applicability of VFS Mechanism 72
5 Enhanced Low-Temperature CVD Growth 73
6 Applications 73
7 Summary 74
Acknowledgements 74
References 74
3 Carbon Nanohorns and Their High Potential in Biological Applications 84
Abstract 84
1 Introduction 85
1.1 SWNH Production 85
1.2 SWNH Properties 86
1.3 Isolation of SWNHs from Aggregates 89
1.4 Surface Functionalization 91
1.5 Photo-Thermal Conversion Efficiency of SWNHs 92
2 Application of SWNHs in Biological Research Fields 93
2.1 Drug Delivery 93
2.2 Use of SWNHs as Photo-Hyperthermia Agents 94
2.3 Photo-Thermal Conversion Engineering 96
2.4 Biosensor Applications 98
3 SWNH Toxicity and Biodegradation 101
3.1 Toxicity 101
3.2 Biodistribution 103
3.3 Biodegradation 106
4 Perspectives and Challenges 109
References 109
4 Bioimaging and Quantum Sensing Using NV Centers in Diamond Nanoparticles 115
Abstract 115
1 Introduction 115
2 Unique Properties of Negative Nitrogen-Vacancy (NV?) Center 116
2.1 Electronic Structure of NV Center 116
2.2 Common Optical Properties of NV Center 117
2.3 Unique Spin Properties of NV? Center 117
2.4 Optically Detected Magnetic Resonance (ODMR) 118
2.5 Production of NV Centers in Diamond Nanoparticles 119
3 Emerging Technologies for Bioimaging 122
3.1 Fluorescence Imaging for In Vivo Long-Term Tracking in Small Animals 122
3.2 Time-Gated Fluorescence Imaging and Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging 123
3.3 Superresolution Imaging 130
3.4 Multiphoton Excitation Microscopy 130
3.5 Tissue Imaging with Microwave Modulation Only 131
3.6 Tissue Imaging with Magnetic Field Modulation Only 132
3.7 Tissue Imaging Combining Microwave and Quadruple Coils 132
4 Emerging Technologies for Quantum Sensing 134
4.1 Magnetic Field Sensor 134
4.2 Orientation Tracker for NV Axis 136
4.3 Nano-Thermometry [82] 136
4.4 Nanoscopic Spin Probe 136
5 Conclusions and Perspectives 137
References 138
5 Polyglycerol-Functionalized Nanoparticles for Biomedical Imaging 144
Abstract 144
1 Introduction 144
2 PG-Functionalized Detonation ND (dND-PG) Conjugated with Gadolinium Complexes for Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 145
2.1 Synthesis and Characterization of dND-PG-Gd(III) 146
2.2 MRI Relaxivity of dND-PG-Gd(III) 148
3 PG-Functionalized SPION (SPION-PG) for MRI 149
3.1 Synthesis and Characterization of SPION-PG 150
3.2 MRI Relaxivity in SPION-PG 153
4 PG-Functionalized Fluorescence ND (fND-PG) for Fluorescent Cellular Imaging 154
4.1 Preparation and Characterization of fND-PG 154
4.2 Fluorescence Cellular Imaging with fND-PG-RGD 157
5 Concluding Remarks 159
References 160
6 Carbon Based Dots and Their Luminescent Properties and Analytical Applications 165
Abstract 165
1 What Are Carbon Based Dots? 165
2 Synthetic Strategies 166
2.1 “Top-Down” Approaches 167
2.1.1 Chemical Oxidation Releasing 167
2.1.2 Chemical Oxidation Etching 172
2.1.3 Electrochemical Cutting 173
2.1.4 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Cutting 176
2.1.5 Intercalation Methods 177
2.1.6 Other Methods 178
2.2 “Bottom-up” Methods 179
2.2.1 Solvothermal Decomposition 179
2.2.2 Direct Thermal Decomposition Without Solvent 182
2.2.3 Microwave Pyrolysis in Solvent 184
2.2.4 Supported Thermal Decomposition 184
2.2.5 Refluxing Pyrolysis in Solvent 186
2.2.6 Stepwise Organic Synthesis 187
2.2.7 Dehydrating Organics with Concentrated H2SO4 187
2.2.8 Other Methods 187
3 Morphology and Structural Characteristics 191
3.1 Morphology 191
3.2 Structural Characteristics 192
4 Luminescent Properties 194
4.1 Photoluminescence 194
4.1.1 PL Mechanism 194
4.1.2 Effect of Excitation Wavelength on the PL of CDs 195
4.1.3 Effect of PH Value of Solution on the PL of CDs 197
4.1.4 Effect of Size on the PL of CDs 197
4.1.5 Enhancing PL of CDs 198
Surface Passivation 198
Reduction Strategies 200
Doping 200
4.2 Upconversion Luminescence 201
4.3 Electrochemiluminescence 203
4.3.1 ECL Mechanisms 203
4.3.2 Coreactant ECL Systems 205
4.4 Chemiluminescence 207
5 Sensing Applications 208
5.1 PL Sensors 208
5.1.1 Response to Hg2+ and Relevant Sensing Applications 208
5.1.2 Response Toward Cu2+ Ion and Relevant Analytical Applications 210
5.1.3 Response Toward Fe3+ Ion and Relevant Sensing Applications 212
5.1.4 Response to PH Value and PH Sensor 214
5.1.5 K+ Sensor 214
5.1.6 Pb2+ Sensor 215
5.1.7 Response to Free Chlorine and Corresponding Sensors 215
5.1.8 Phosphate and Phosphate-Containing Metabolites Detection 216
5.1.9 Glucose Detection 217
5.1.10 Immunosensor 218
5.1.11 DNA Sensor 219
5.1.12 Glutathione Detection 219
5.1.13 Organic Pollutants Detection 220
5.2 ECL Sensor 221
5.2.1 Metal Ions Sensors 221
5.2.2 Biosensing 222
5.2.3 Pentachlorophenol Detection 224
5.3 CL Sensor 225
5.4 Summary 226
References 227
7 Photoluminescent Properties of Carbon Nanodots 243
Abstract 243
1 Introduction 243
2 Structures and Compositions 244
3 Optical Properties 245
3.1 Absorbance 245
3.2 Photoluminescence 246
3.3 Upconversion Photoluminescence 247
3.4 Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) 247
4 Photoluminescence Mechanisms 247
4.1 Surface State 248
4.2 Conjugate Structures 250
4.3 Special Structure Sites 251
5 Applications 253
5.1 Bioimaging 253
5.2 Sensors 254
6 In Conclusion 255
Acknowledgments 256
References 256
8 Catalytic Applications of Carbon Dots 261
Abstract 261
1 Preparative Methods 261
2 Structures and Properties of CDs 262
2.1 Component and Structure 263
2.2 Properties 263
3 Catalytic Properties of CDs 265
3.1 Photoctalytic Activity for Selective Oxidation Reaction [7] 265
3.2 Visible Light Induced Acid Catalyst [24] 267
3.3 Photoenhanced Hydrogen-Bond Catalytic Activity [41] 269
3.4 Visible-Light Photocatalysts for CO2 Conversion [67] 271
3.5 Photocatalyst for Overall Water-Splitting [79] 273
3.6 CDs as Electrocatalysts [5] 274
4 Catalysts Design Based on Carbon Dots 275
4.1 From CDs to Mesoporous Carbons Catalyst [93] 275
4.2 Metal Nanoparticle/CD Complex Photocatalyst for Hydrocarbon Selective Oxidation [111] 276
4.3 CDs/Ag/Ag3PW12O40 Photocatalysts for Overall Water Splitting [131] 278
4.4 CDs Sensitized TiO2 Nanotube Arrays for Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Generation Under Visible Light [170] 279
4.5 Modulation of Electron/Energy Transfer States at TiO2-CDs Interface [182] 281
4.6 CDs Stabilized Gold Nanoparticles Catalyst System [183] 282
4.7 Photocatalyst Design Based on CDs and Semiconductor Nanoparticles [40, 168, 169] 283
4.8 CDs/NiFe Layered Double Hydroxide Composite Electrocatalyst [206] 285
4.9 CDs for Porous Co, N-Codoped Carbon Electrocatalyst Design [218] 287
5 Outlook [1–5] 288
References 289
9 Diamond Nanostructures and Nanoparticles: Electrochemical Properties and Applications 303
Abstract 303
1 Introduction 303
2 Diamond Nanostructures 304
2.1 Fabrication Approaches 304
2.2 Electrochemical Properties 306
2.3 Electrochemical Applications 307
2.3.1 Electroanalytical Applications 307
2.3.2 Electrochemical Capacitors 310
2.3.3 Other Applications 311
3 Diamond Nanoparticles 312
3.1 Synthesis Methods 312
3.1.1 Un-doped Diamond Nanoparticles 312
3.1.2 Doped Diamond Nanoparticles 313
3.2 Electrochemical Properties 313
3.2.1 Un-doped Diamond Nanoparticles 313
Detonation Diamond Nanoparticles 313
HPHT Diamond Nanoparticles 316
3.2.2 Doped Diamond Nanoparticles 317
3.3 Electrochemical Applications 318
3.3.1 Un-doped Diamond Nanoparticles 318
Electroanalytical Applications 318
Electrocatalysts 319
Energy Storage 321
Other Applications 321
3.3.2 Doped Diamond Particles 322
4 Diamond Nanoelectrode Arrays 322
4.1 Production Procedures 323
4.2 Electrochemical Properties 324
4.3 Electrochemical Applications 325
5 Summary and Outlook 325
Acknowledgements 326
References 326
10 Carbon-Based Nanostructures for Matrix-Free Mass Spectrometry 335
Abstract 335
1 Introduction 336
2 Carbon-Based Materials for SALDI 339
2.1 Graphite 340
2.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 343
2.3 Fullerenes 345
2.4 Diamond-Based Structures 348
2.4.1 Diamond-like Carbon (DLC) 348
2.4.2 Diamond Particles 348
2.4.3 Nanocrystalline Diamond (NCD) 350
2.4.4 Diamond Nanowires 351
3 Conclusion 354
Acknowledgement 355
References 355