Optics Inspections and Tests

I Theory and Materials
Introduction
1.1 Prologue
1.2 Defining Quality
1.3 Relating Quality with Optics Inspections and Testing
1.4 The Purpose of This Book
2 Optics
2.1 History and Development
2.2 The Nature of Light
2.3 Geometrical Optics
2.3.1 Scattering
2.3.2 Critical angle and total internal reflection
2.4 Physical Optics
2.5 Optical Aberrations
2.5.1 Chromatic aberrations
2.5.2 Monochromatic aberrations
2.5.3 Correcting (reducing) optical aberrations
2.5.4 Surface and material aberrations
2.5.5 Optical system aberrations
2.6 Interference
2.7 Optical System Design
2.8 Types of Optical Components
References
3 Raw Materials for Producing Optical Elements
3.1 What Is an Optical Material?
3.2 Materials for Optical Elements
3.2.1 Glass
3.2.1.1 Optical glass
3.2.1.2 Color optical filter
3.2.1.3 Special glasses for molding
3.2.2 Crystal
3.2.3 Plastic
3.2.4 Metals (for mirrors only)
3.2.5 Special materials
3.3 Classification of Optical Materials
3.3.1 According to molecular structure
3.3.2 According to atomic orientation
3.3.3 According to the working spectral range
3.3.4 According to colors
3.3.5 According to the refraction index (for glasses)
3.4 Main Characteristics of Optical Materials
3.4.1 Optical properties
3.4.2 Internal (bulk) quality
3.4.3 Chemical properties
3.4.4 Mechanical properties
3.4.5 Electrical properties
References
4 Manufacturing Processes of Optical Materials
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Glass Manufacturing Process
4.3 Crystal
4.3.1 Sapphire manufacturing methods
4.3.2 Gradient solidification method
4.3.3 Czochralski method
4.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition
4.4.1 Types of CVD processes
4.4.2 Basic steps of the CVD process
4.4.3 CVD system
4.4.4 Hot isostatic press
4.5 Plastic
4.5.1 CR-39
4.5.2 Related concepts
4.6 Aluminum
4.6.1 Related concepts
References
5 Methods for Producing Optical Components
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Conventional Method: Spindle Grinding and Polishing
5.3 Diamond Turning
5.4 Precision Glass Molding and Precision Molded Optics
5.5 Additional Methods for Improving Optical Elements
5.5.1 Magneto rheological finishing
5.5.2 Hybrid molding
5.5.3 Computer-numerical-control grinding and polishing method
5.5.4 Freeform polishing method
5.5.5 Ion beam figuring
5.6 Additional Shaping Methods and Those that Produce Specular Surfaces
References
6 Optical Coatings
6.1 Classification of Optical Coatings
6.2 Materials
6.3 AR Coating
6.4 Reflective Coatings
6.5 Optical-Coating-Deposition Technologies
6.5.1 Evaporation (deposition) methods
6.5.2 Sputter deposition methods
6.5.3 Advanced plasma reactive sputtering (APRS)
6.6 Requirements
6.7 Typical Spectral Curves
References
7 Optical Adhesives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Production Bond Failures
7.3 Incoming Failure Identification
References
8 Optics Standards and General Technical Specifications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Importance and Utility of Standards and Specifications
8.3 Defining a Standard
8.4 Defining a Specification
8.5 MIL-HDBK, MIL-STD, and Milspecs
8.6 International Organization for Standardization
8.7 ANSI, ASTM, and ASME
8.8 Deutsches Institut für Normung
8.9 General Standards for Technical Drawings
9 Metrology: Measurement Theory
9.1 Definition
9.2 Scientific or Fundamental Metrology
9.3 Applied, Technical, and Industrial Metrology
9.4 Legal Metrology
9.5 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing
9.6 Rules of Thumb for Measurement Tools
References
II Methods and Tools
10 Testing and Examining Optical Components
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Overview of Production Requirement Documents
10.3 A Review of Quality Production and Inspection Records
10.3.1 Process report
10.3.2 Inspection report
10.3.3 Raw material certificates (or certificate and meld data)
10.3.4 Routing card
10.3.5 COC, COT, and COA
11 Inspection and Testing of Raw Materials
11.1 Index of Refraction
11.2 Homogeneity
11.2.1 Designation of required homogeneity in production files
11.2.2 Homogeneity designation according to ISO 10110-4
11.3 Bubbles and Inclusions
11.4 Striae
11.4.1 Designation of required striae in production files
11.5 Strain (Stress)
11.5.1 Designation of required stress birefringence in production files
11.6 Transmission/transmittance
11.7 Resistivity of Silicon or Germanium
References
12 Inspection and Testing of Components
12.1 Radius of a Spherical Surface
12.2 Sag (Sagitta)
12.3 Centration
12.4 Dial Gauges and Indicators
12.5 Roundness (Circularity)
12.6 Central Thickness of a Lens
12.7 Thickness and Parallelism of Windows
12.8 Length between Ground Surfaces
12.9 Concentricity
12.10 Perpendicularity
12.11 Chamfer
12.12 Inside Edges
12.13 Surface Texture
12.14 Angularity
13 Inspection and Testing of Surface Shape and Figure
13.1 Test Plate
13.2 Analyzing the Interference Pattern Revealed by the Test Plate
13.3 Example Surface Patterns of Flat and Spherical Surfaces
13.4 Principles of Manual Analysis of Interferograms
13.5 Analyzing the Interference of Simple Patterns
13.6 Analyzing the Interference of Various Patterns
13.7 Important Considerations when Analyzing Interference
13.8 Interferometric Measurements for Flat and Spherical Surfaces
13.9 Testing Cylindrical Surfaces
References
14 Coatings
14.1 Optical Properties
14.2 Environmental Durability
14.3 Visual Inspections
14.4 Witness Samples
14.5 Durability of Coatings with Primers and Silicon Removers
References
15 Special Properties of Aspheric Surfaces, Diffractive Surfaces, and Sapphire
15.1 Aspheric Surfaces
15.1.1 Profile plots
15.1.2 Contact profilometer method by OptiPro
15.1.3 Noncontact 3D method
15.1.4 Roughness
15.1.5 Slope error
15.2 Diffractive Surfaces
15.2.1 Measuring and testing diffractive surfaces
15.3 Sapphire
References
III Inspection and Quality Assurance
16 Acceptance Sampling (Standards and Methods)
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Terms and Definitions
16.3 How to Determine if 100% Inspection is Necessary
16.4 Sampling Plan Procedure
16.5 Types of Decisions
16.6 Main Statistical Inspection Sample Table References
16.7 Summary
References
17 Location and Process of the Inspection/Test
17.1 Location
17.2 Basic Needs
17.3 Process
18 Visual Inspection
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Definitions
18.2.1 Visual inspection
18.2.2 Beauty defects
18.2.3 Cosmetic defects
18.3 Requirements for Good Visual Inspections
18.4 Kinds of Defects
18.5 Visual Inspection Methods
18.6 Main Defects in Optical Elements
18.7 Illustrations of Visible Defects in Optical Elements
18.8 Measuring and Calculating Visual Defects
18.8.1 Scratches and digs
18.8.2 Defects according to military specifications
18.8.3 Defects according to ISO standards
18.8.4 Edge chips according to military specifications
18.8.5 Glass defects, bubbles, and inclusions according to military specifications and standards
18.8.6 Stains
18.8.7 Cement defects
18.8.8 Drawing C7641866: surface quality standards for optical elements
18.8.9 Common sense and consideration
References
19 Handling Optical Components
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Cleaning and Handling
19.2.1 Cleaning solvents (solutions)
19.2.2 Supplemental materials and accessories
19.2.3 Cleaning and handling procedure
19.2.4 Cleaning and handling assembled optical elements
19.2.5 Cleaning and handling procedure for outer optical elements during maintenance
19.3 Guidelines for Cleaning or Handling Optical Elements
19.4 Packaging, Storage, and Shipping
19.4.1 Packaging
19.4.2 Storage
19.4.3 Shipping
19.5 Health and Safety Aspects
19.6 Environmental and Additional Health and Safety Aspects
19.7 First Contact Cleaning Technology
References
20 Testing of Optical Systems
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Main Optical System Parameters
20.2.1 Resolving power (or resolution)
20.2.2 Modulation transfer function
20.2.3 Boresight
20.2.4 Noise equivalent temperature difference
20.2.5 Minimum resolvable temperature difference
20.2.6 Minimum resolvable contrast
20.2.7 Blur circle (blur spot)
20.3 Additional Required Tests of Optical Systems
References
21 Handling Nonconforming Optical Elements
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Procedure
21.3 MRB Decisions
21.4 Other Considerations
22 Quality Assurance
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Terms and Definitions
22.3 Quality Management Theories
22.3.1 Deming's theory
22.3.2 Crosby's theory
22.3.3 Juran's theory
22.3.4 Ishikawa's theory
22.3.5 Feigenbaum's theory
22.3.6 Shewhart's theory
22.3.7 Garvin's theory
22.4 Product Manufacturing Steps
22.5 Quality Management Standards
22.6 Quality Audits
22.7 Lean Manufacturing
22.7.1 The seven wastes
22.8 Quality Costs
22.9 Controlling Manufacturing Processes
22.10 Communication with Suppliers and Customers
22.11 Manufacturer Qualifying Process
22.12 First Article Inspection
22.13 Professionalism and Organizational Conduct
References
23 Summary