Behavioral Neuroscience of Motivation (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 8
Contributors 11
402 The Behavioral Neuroscience of Motivation: An Overview of Concepts, Measures, and Translational Applications 15
Abstract 15
1 Why Motivation Is Important to Understand 16
2 What We Mean by the Word Motivation 17
3 A Simplified Overview of How Motivation Might Work in the Brain 18
4 Cost–Benefit Computation as the Arbiter of Motivated Behavior 19
5 Research Approaches to Understanding Motivation 21
6 Organismal Level Biology Is Critical to Understanding Motivation 22
7 Motivation Gone Wrong 22
8 Treatments 24
References 25
The Neurobiology of Components of Motivational Drive 27
381 Regulation of the Motivation to Eat 28
Abstract 28
1 Motivation 29
2 Eating 31
3 Homeostatic Versus Non-homeostatic Eating 34
4 Homeostatic Influences 36
5 Non-homeostatic Influences over the Motivation to Eat 39
6 Integration of Homeostatic and Non-homeostatic Influences over Food Intake 40
7 Summary 41
References 42
392 Sexual Motivation in the Female and Its Opposition by Stress 48
Abstract 48
1 Logic of Motivation 49
2 Sexual Mechanisms 49
3 Comparing Sex and Stress 51
4 Stress Mechanisms 52
5 Stress Impact upon Reproductive Behaviors in Females 53
6 Open Questions from the Works Referred To 57
7 Useful Research Topics for the Future 57
References 59
390 Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and the Motivational Forces that Drive Social Behaviors 63
Abstract 63
1 Overview 64
2 Origins and Mechanisms of Motivated Social Behaviors 65
2.1 Cooperative and Competitive Behaviors 66
2.2 Brain Areas that Regulate Cooperative and Competitive Behaviors 68
3 Neuroendocrine Modulation of Social Behaviors 70
3.1 The Oxytocin System 70
3.2 The Vasopressin System 71
3.3 Signaling by Oxytocin and Vasopressin in the Brain 72
3.4 Epigenetics 74
4 Oxytocin/Vasopressin and Cooperative and Competitive Behaviors: Social Memory, Social Interactions, and Aggression 75
4.1 Social Recognition Memory 75
4.2 Cooperative Behavior 77
4.3 Competitive Behavior 79
4.3.1 Oxytocin and Competitive Behavior 79
4.3.2 Vasopressin and Competitive Behavior 81
4.3.3 The Vasopressin 1a Receptor and Competitive Behavior 81
4.3.4 The Vasopressin 1A Receptor and Maternal Aggression 83
4.3.5 The Vasopressin 1b Receptor and Competitive Behavior 84
4.4 Social Communication 85
4.5 Interactions Between Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and Dopamine in the Regulation of Cooperation/Competition 86
5 Cooperativity and Competitiveness in Humans 87
5.1 Nonapeptides and Social Cognition in Healthy Humans 88
5.1.1 Oxytocin and Social Cognition in Humans 88
5.1.2 Vasopressin and Social Cognition in Humans 90
5.2 Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and the Mesolimbic Dopamine System 90
6 Implications for Neuropsychiatric Disorders 91
6.1 Autism Spectrum Disorder 91
6.2 Personality Disorder 92
6.3 Schizophrenia 93
6.4 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 94
7 Conclusions and Future Directions 95
References 96
387 Roles of “Wanting” and “Liking” in Motivating Behavior: Gambling, Food, and Drug Addictions 116
Abstract 116
1 Introduction 117
2 “Liking” and “Wanting” 117
3 Drug Addiction 123
3.1 Evidence for the Incentive Sensitization Theory 126
3.2 The Role of “Liking,” and Alternate Hypotheses of Addiction 128
4 Gambling 130
5 Food Addiction 134
6 Concluding Remarks 138
References 138
384 Circadian Insights into Motivated Behavior 148
Abstract 148
1 Circadian Considerations for Motivated Behaviors 150
1.1 Goal-Directed and Arousal Aspects of Motivation 150
1.2 Circadian Rhythms Impact Goal-Directed Motivation 151
1.3 Circadian Rhythms Impact Arousal Components of Motivation 152
1.4 Distinguishing Circadian Arousal and Goal-Directed Components of Behavior 153
2 Cellular, Molecular, and Network Basis of SCN Circadian Timing 154
2.1 Cellular Oscillation 155
2.2 Amplitude of SCN Oscillation 155
2.3 SCN Afferents and Efferents 157
2.4 Circadian Organization of Motivation 157
3 Circadian Regulation of Sleep–Wake/Arousal Cycles 157
3.1 Homeostatic Regulation of Sleep: Adenosine 158
3.2 Circadian Modulation of Sleep 158
3.3 Feedback of Sleep to Circadian System 159
4 Exercise/Activity 159
4.1 Locomotor Activity is Rewarding 159
4.2 Feedback of Exercise to Circadian System 160
4.3 Activity Influences Other Motivated Behaviors 161
5 Eating 161
5.1 Feeding Duration 162
5.2 Peripheral Factors Determining Eating 162
5.3 Anticipatory Behavior Entails Circadian Timing 162
5.4 Extra-SCN Circadian Oscillators Support Anticipatory Behaviors 163
5.5 Oscillators Mediating Anticipation of Feeding 163
5.6 Brain Oscillators 163
5.7 Peripheral Oscillators 164
5.8 Disrupted Circadian Control: Night Eating Syndrome 164
6 Mating/Sex 165
6.1 Sexual Behavior is Highly Motivated and is Under Temporal Control 165
6.2 Interaction Between Sex and Other Motivated Behaviors 166
6.3 Anticipatory Activity 167
6.4 Feedback of Sexual Behavior to the Circadian System 168
7 Maternal Behavior 168
7.1 Feedback of Maternal Behavior on the Circadian Clock 168
7.2 Neural Basis of Anticipation of Maternal Care 169
7.3 Cellular Clock and Maternal Care 169
8 Circadian Basis of Motivation Disorders 169
8.1 Depression and Schizophrenia 170
8.2 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 170
8.3 Circadian Considerations for Treatment of Psychiatric Conditions 171
9 Conclusion 171
References 172
401 The Neural Foundations of Reaction and Action in Aversive Motivation 181
Abstract 181
1 Introduction 182
2 Taxonomy of Behavior 182
3 Historical Context of Studies on Aversive Learning 185
4 Neural Basis of Reactions 186
5 Diverse Functions of a Threat Stimulus: The Nature of Action and Reaction Learning in Aversive Motivation 190
6 The Neural Basis of Aversively Motivated Actions 191
6.1 Neural Control of Signaled and Unsignaled Avoidance Behavior 191
6.2 Neural Control of Escape from Threat 195
6.3 Incentive Motivation: Neural Circuits of Aversive Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer 196
7 Summary 199
References 199
Neural Measures and Correlates of Motivation Signals and Computations 206
382 Neurophysiology of Reward-Guided Behavior: Correlates Related to Predictions, Value, Motivation, Errors, Attention, and Action 207
Abstract 207
1 Introduction 208
2 Value Versus Motivation and Salience 210
2.1 Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC) 211
2.2 Nucleus Accumbens 214
2.3 Parietal Cortex 215
3 Signed Prediction Error Versus Attention/Salience 216
3.1 Midbrain Dopamine (DA) Neurons 217
3.2 Basolateral Amygdala (ABL) 218
3.3 Anterior Cingulate (ACC) 221
4 Correlates of Motivation and Associative Encoding in Striatum 222
5 Integration of Positive and Negative Information into a Common Output Signal 226
6 Conclusion 228
Acknowledgements 229
References 229
383 Mesolimbic Dopamine and the Regulation of Motivated Behavior 239
Abstract 239
1 Introduction 240
2 Dynamic Activity of DA Neurons: Multiple Modes of Responding 241
3 Behavioral Manifestations of Interference with Accumbens DA Transmission: Dissociation of Distinct Components of Motivation and Reinforcement 242
4 Manifestations of Interference with Accumbens DA Transmission: Behavioral Activation, Behavioral Economics, and Effort-Related Choice 247
5 Clinical Significance of Effort-Related Functions 250
6 Conclusions 254
Acknowledgements 254
References 255
388 Learning and Motivational Processes Contributing to Pavlovian–Instrumental Transfer and Their Neural Bases: Dopamine and Beyond 266
Abstract 266
1 Introduction 267
2 The Functional Importance of Pavlovian Conditioning 267
3 The Pavlovian Control of Instrumental Action 269
3.1 Instrumental and Pavlovian Incentive Processes 269
3.2 General Versus Specific Transfer 271
3.3 Specific Transfer and Choice 276
4 Neural Bases of Transfer 277
4.1 The Limbic-Striatal Circuit 277
4.2 Dopamine and the Modulation of the Nucleus Accumbens 279
4.3 Beyond Dopamine 281
4.3.1 Opioid–Dopamine Interactions and the Role of Acetylcholine 281
4.4 Beyond the Accumbens: The Extended Circuit 283
4.4.1 Dorsal Striatum 283
4.4.2 Ventral Pallidum 285
4.4.3 Ventral Tegmental Area 287
5 Pavlovian Incentives and Pathologies of Decision Making 288
5.1 Exposure to Drugs of Abuse 288
5.2 Obesogenic Food Exposure 289
5.3 Stress 290
6 Summary and Conclusions 291
Acknowledgments 291
References 291
386 Multiple Systems for the Motivational Control of Behavior and Associated Neural Substrates in Humans 297
Abstract 297
1 Introduction 298
2 The Neural Representation of Goal Values 298
3 Outcome Values 299
4 Prechoice Goal-Value Signals 299
5 Common and Distinct Goal Values for Different Goods 300
6 From Goal Values to Actions 302
7 A Role for Dorsal Cortical Areas in Encoding Action–Outcome Probabilities and Effort 303
8 Action Values 303
9 An Alternative Route to Action: Habitual Mechanisms 304
10 Pavlovian Effects on Motivation 306
11 Pavlovian and Habitual Interactions and Paradoxical Motivational Effects for Non-valued Outcomes 308
12 Other Approaches to Demonstrating the Role of the Ventral Striatum in Motivation Beyond PIT 308
13 “Over-Arousal” and Choking Effects on Instrumental Responding 309
14 How Is the Control of These Systems Over Behavior Regulated: The Role of Arbitration 312
15 Translational Implications 313
16 Conclusions 314
References 314
375 The Computational Complexity of Valuation and Motivational Forces in Decision-Making Processes 319
Abstract 319
1 What is Value? 320
1.1 Measuring Value 321
2 Taking the Subject’s Point of View 322
2.1 Information Processing in Decision-Making Systems 322
2.1.1 Algorithms of Revealed Preference (Deliberation) 323
2.1.2 Algorithms of Willingness to Pay (Procedural) 325
2.1.3 Algorithms of Approach and Avoidance (Pavlovian) 326
2.1.4 The Role of Motivation 327
2.1.5 The Macro-Agent 328
3 Testing the Theory 328
4 Summary and Implications 332
5 Is Value Still a Valuable Hypothetical Construct? 334
References 334
Apathy and Pathological Deficits in Motivation 340
400 The Neurobiology of Motivational Deficits in Depression—An Update on Candidate Pathomechanisms 341
Abstract 341
1 Introduction 342
2 Motivation, Reinforcement, and Dopamine 344
3 Motivation and Reinforcement in Depression—Implications for DA Dysfunction 347
4 Candidate Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Motivational and Reinforcement Deficits in Depression 349
4.1 A Role for Inflammation in Motivational Deficits in Depression 349
5 Synaptic Plasticity Alterations May Impact Motivation in Patients with Depression 351
6 Conclusion 352
Acknowledgements and Disclosures 353
References 353
379 Motivational Deficits and Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia: Concepts and Assessments 360
Abstract 360
1 Introduction 361
1.1 Historical Context 361
1.2 Types of Negative Symptoms 361
1.3 The Anhedonia Paradox 362
2 Possible Factors that Contribute to Motivational Negative Symptoms 363
2.1 Abnormalities in Anticipatory Pleasure 363
2.2 Alterations in Reward Learning 365
2.3 Effort-Based Decision-Making 366
2.4 Social Motivation (Approach/Avoidance) 367
3 Interventions for Motivational Negative Symptoms 368
3.1 Conventional Approaches 369
3.2 Recent Developments 370
4 Conclusions 372
References 372
385 Motivational Deficits in Schizophrenia and the Representation of Expected Value 377
Abstract 377
1 Introduction 378
2 Identifying a Relationship Between EV and Avolition: Considerations 379
2.1 How Do We Quantify the Severity of Motivational Deficits in Schizophrenia? 379
2.2 What Constitutes a Behavioral EV Signal? 380
2.3 What Constitutes a Neural EV Signal? 382
2.4 Distinguishing EV Signals from General Salience Signals 384
2.5 Acquisition of Incentive Salience Versus on-the-Fly Computation of EV 385
2.6 EV of Stimuli Versus EV of Actions 386
3 Integrating EV with Cost Considerations to Guide Decision Making 387
3.1 Distinguishing Wanting from Willingness to Work 387
3.2 Distinguishing Wanting from Willingness to Wait 388
4 Evidence for Faulty EV Signaling in SZ 388
4.1 Behavioral and Modeling Evidence for Faulty EV Signaling in SZ 388
4.1.1 Probabilistic Discrimination Learning in Schizophrenia 388
4.1.2 Studies of in-the-Moment Value Estimation in Schizophrenia 391
4.1.3 Devaluation and Extinction Experiments 391
4.2 Neural Evidence for Faulty EV Signaling in SZ 392
4.2.1 Investigating Hypothetical Decision Making in SZ with MRI 393
4.2.2 Making Sense of MID Results 393
4.2.3 Conditioning Experiments 393
4.2.4 Conclusions Regarding Evidence for Faulty EV Signaling in SZ 397
5 Avolition and Outcome Processing in Schizophrenia 397
5.1 Behavioral Studies of Outcome Processing in Schizophrenia 398
5.2 Neuroimaging Studies of Reward and Punishment Receipt in Schizophrenia 399
5.3 Neuroimaging Studies of RPE Signaling in SZ 400
5.4 Do Abnormalities in Consummatory Hedonics or RPE Signaling Account for Abnormalities in EV Signaling in SZ? 402
6 General Conclusions 403
References 405
376 Mechanisms Underlying Motivational Deficits in Psychopathology: Similarities and Differences in Depression and Schizophrenia 413
Abstract 413
1 Introduction 414
1.1 Translating Hedonic Experience into Motivated Behavior 415
2 Hedonics and Liking 419
2.1 Schizophrenia 419
2.1.1 Monetary Rewards 419
2.1.2 Primary Rewards 420
2.1.3 Summary of Hedonics and Liking in Schizophrenia: 420
2.2 Depression 421
2.2.1 Monetary Rewards 422
2.2.2 Primary Rewards 422
2.2.3 Summary of Hedonics and Liking in Depression: 423
2.3 Hedonics in Schizophrenia versus Depression 424
3 Reward Prediction, Anticipation, and Reinforcement Learning 424
3.1 Schizophrenia 424
3.1.1 Reward Anticipation 424
3.1.2 Reward Prediction Error 425
3.1.3 Reinforcement Learning 426
3.2 Depression 427
3.2.1 Reward Anticipation 427
3.2.2 Reward Prediction Error 428
3.2.3 Reinforcement Learning 428
3.3 Summary of Reward Prediction, Anticipation, and Reinforcement Learning in Schizophrenia and Depression 429
4 Value Computations and OFC Function 430
4.1 Schizophrenia 430
4.2 Depression 431
5 Effort Computations 431
5.1 Schizophrenia 432
5.2 Depression 433
5.3 Summary of Effort Allocation in Schizophrenia and Depression 433
6 Goal-Directed Action 434
6.1 Schizophrenia 434
6.2 Depression 435
7 Summary of Reward and Motivational Neuroscience in Schizophrenia and Depression 435
References 438
380 Methods for Dissecting Motivation and Related Psychological Processes in Rodents 452
Abstract 452
1 Aspects of Motivation Impacted in Psychiatric Disease 455
2 Assessing Anhedonia 456
2.1 Preference Assessments 456
2.2 Taste-Reactivity Testing 456
3 Assessing Avolition 457
3.1 Fixed- and Progressive-Ratio Schedules 457
3.2 Effort-Related Choice Tasks 458
4 Assessing Outcome Representation and Flexible Use of Represented Outcomes in Behaviour 459
5 Separating Goal-Directed from Arousal Components of Motivation 460
6 Dissecting Psychological Components of Motivation: An Example Using an Animal Model of the Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia 462
7 Conclusions 467
References 468
Addiction and the Pathological Misdirection of Motivated Behaviour 472
391 Motivational Processes Underlying Substance Abuse Disorder 473
Abstract 473
1 Introduction 474
1.1 Rodent Models of Addiction 475
2 Overview of Motivational Processes and Their Neurobiological Substrates 476
3 Hedonic Allostasis 479
4 Incentive Sensitization 482
5 Addiction as a Disorder of Learning and Decision Making 485
5.1 Goal- Versus Habit-Based Responding 486
5.2 Neural Circuits Governing Goal- and Habit-Based Decision Making 487
5.3 Pavlovian Cues: Reward Prediction, Incentive Salience, and Transfer to Instrumental Responding 489
6 Impulsive Action and Impaired Executive Function 489
7 Models that Integrate Motivational Concepts 490
7.1 Dual-Process Models 490
7.2 Transitions from Drug-Taking to Addiction 491
7.3 Drug Addiction: A Compendium of Vulnerabilities 492
8 Conclusion 493
Acknowledgements 496
References 496
393 Skewed by Cues? The Motivational Role of Audiovisual Stimuli in Modelling Substance Use and Gambling Disorders 507
Abstract 507
1 Introduction 508
2 The Impact of Conditioned Cues in Models of Drug Addiction 511
2.1 Pavlovian Conditioning and Drug Addiction 511
2.2 The Incentive Sensitization Theory of Drug Addiction 512
2.3 Attentional Bias in Drug Addiction 513
3 The Role of Cues in Gambling 514
3.1 Animal Models of the Influence CS Exert over Behaviour 516
3.2 Sign-Tracking 516
3.3 Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer 518
3.4 Conditioned Reinforcement 519
3.5 Interim Summary 520
3.6 The Addition of Cues to Decision-Making Tasks Fundamentally Alters Neurobiological Regulation of Choice 521
3.7 Concluding Remarks 523
3.8 Financial Disclosures 523
References 524
Developments in Treatments for Motivation Pathologies 530
373 The Role of Motivation in Cognitive Remediation for People with Schizophrenia 531
Abstract 531
1 Introduction 532
2 The Role of Motivation in Learning 533
3 Determinants of Intrinsic Motivation 534
4 Intrinsic Motivation to Learn in Schizophrenia 535
4.1 Do I Expect Success? 535
4.2 Do I Value the Task? 536
4.3 Are My Needs for Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness Met When I Engage in This Learning Activity? 537
5 Translating Motivation Theory to Cognitive Remediation Practice 538
5.1 The Learning Environment 538
5.2 Instructional Techniques 539
6 Conclusion 542
References 543
389 Distress from Motivational Dis-integration: When Fundamental Motives Are Too Weak or Too Strong 545
Abstract 545
1 Four Distinct Motivational Concerns 547
2 Effective Motivational Pursuit 550
3 Dis-integration from Motives Being Too Weak 551
3.1 Depression 551
3.2 Parkinson’s Disease 553
3.3 Discussion: Dis-integration from Motives Being Too Weak 554
4 Dis-integration from Motives Being Too Strong 555
4.1 Anxiety 555
4.2 Narcissism 557
4.3 Discussion: Dis-integration from Motives Being Too Strong 559
4.4 An Important Caveat 560
5 Possibilities for Improvement: Micro-interventions 560
6 Motivational Integration as a Source of Well-Being 562
References 562
374 Motivation and Contingency Management Treatments for Substance Use Disorders 567
Abstract 567
1 Preface 568
2 Overview of Contingency Management 568
2.1 Fundamentals of Contingency Management 569
2.1.1 Monitoring of Behavior 569
2.1.2 Types of Reinforcers 569
2.2 Research Evidence 570
3 Patient Motivation and Contingency Management 572
3.1 External Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation 572
3.2 Contingency Management and Intrinsic Motivation 574
4 Summary 576
References 576
Index 580