Imaging Technologies and Data Processing for Food Engineers (eBook)

Preface 6
Contents 7
Contributors 9
Chapter-1 11
Cereal Grain Structure by Microscopic Analysis 11
1.1 General Structure of Cereal Grains 11
1.2 Using Microscopy Techniques in Imaging of Cereal Grains 13
1.2.1 Stereomicroscopy 13
1.2.2 Light Microscopy 13
1.2.3 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy 14
1.2.4 Scanning Electron microscopy 14
1.3 Examination of Cereal Grain Structure by Microscopy 15
1.3.1 Stereomicroscopy of Cereal Grains 15
1.3.2 Visualization of Starch, Protein and Cell Walls in Cereal Grains 15
1.4 Microstructure of Processed Cereal Products 23
1.4.1 Milling 23
1.4.1.1 The Effect of Temperature on Milling Behaviour of Wheat Bran 23
1.4.1.2 Extensive Dry Ball Milling Leads to Fragmentation of Arabinoxylan of Wheat Bran 25
1.4.1.3 Effect of a Milling Pretreatment on the Microstructure of Brewer’s Spent Grain 27
1.4.2 Enzymatic Processing 29
1.4.2.1 The Release of Ferulic Acid Metabolites from Wheat Aleurone Is Increased by Enzymatic Disintegration 29
1.4.2.2 Microstructural Changes in Brewer’s Spent Grain Due to Milling Pretreatment and Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Carbohydrates 31
1.4.3 Fractionation Processing 33
1.4.3.1 Enrichment of Grain Outer Layers and Aleurone Cell Walls Present in Wheat Bran by Electrostatic Separation 33
1.4.4 Malting 35
1.4.4.1 Using Starter Culture as a Tool to Reduce Extracellular Polymeric Substances Accumulation in Barley Kernel Tissues During Malting 35
1.4.5 Baking 37
1.4.5.1 Fermentation 37
1.4.5.2 Microstructure of Pasta Made with Wheat Flour Rendered Gluten-Free 38
1.4.5.3 The Effect of Alkylresorcinols on Microstructure of Bread 41
1.4.5.4 The Impact of Tyrosinase on the Microstructure of Gluten-Free Oat Dough 43
1.5 Summary 45
References 45
Chapter-2 50
Localization of Cereal Grain Components by Vibrational Microscopy and Chemometric Analysis 50
2.1 Introduction 50
2.2 FTIR Microspectroscopy 51
2.3 Confocal Raman Microscopy 53
2.4 Data Analysis of Spectral Images 58
2.4.1 Preprocessing 59
2.4.2 Spectral Analysis 62
2.5 Study of Barley Grains Using CRM and Multivariate Analysis 66
2.5.1 Materials and Methods 67
2.5.2 Results and Discussion 68
2.6 Conclusions 73
References 74
Chapter-3 78
Imaging of Double Emulsions 78
3.1 Introduction: Double Emulsions—Structure and Challenges for Imaging 78
3.2 Imaging Techniques: Principles and Application to Double Emulsions 80
3.2.1 Optical Microscopy 80
3.2.2 Electron Microscopy 85
3.2.3 Atomic Force Microscopy 85
3.2.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 87
3.3 Image Processing 89
3.3.1 Contrast and Quantitative Image Analysis 89
3.3.2 Profiling Versus Slice Selective Imaging 90
3.3.3 Determination of Structural Parameters 92
3.4 Insights into Double Emulsions 93
3.4.1 Geometric Structure 93
3.4.2 Chemical Composition and Morphology 95
3.4.3 Dynamic Processes: Exchange and Instabilities 97
3.4.4 Imaging of Emulsion: Characterisation of Physical Parameters from Processing to Digestion 98
3.5 Summary 100
References 101
Chapter-4 108
Imaging of Fermented Dairy Products 108
4.1 Introduction 108
4.1.1 Colloidal Components of Milk 108
4.1.2 Fermented Dairy Products: Formation and Structural Components 110
4.2 Imaging Fermented Dairy Gels by CLSM 113
4.2.1 Imaging of Protein and Fat 115
4.2.2 Imaging of Added Stabilizers and Bacterial Exopolysaccharides 116
4.2.3 Dynamic Confocal Microscopy 120
4.3 Electron Microscopy Techniques 121
4.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 121
4.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy 125
4.4 Image Analysis 128
References 130
Chapter-5 138
Kinetics of Bubble Growth in Bread Dough and Crust Formation 138
5.1 The Importance of Gas Production and Gas Retention in Breadmaking 138
5.2 Bubble Nucleation and Mixing 139
5.3 Kinetics of Bubble Growth in Bread Dough 141
5.3.1 Overview 141
5.3.2 Factors Affecting Changes in the Bubble Size Distribution 142
5.3.2.1 Disproportionation 142
5.3.2.2 Bubble Growth 145
5.3.2.3 Coalescence 148
5.3.2.4 Densification at the Crust 149
5.4 Modeling Formation of Cellular Structure 150
5.4.1 Analytical Models 150
5.4.2 Numerical Models 151
5.5 Methods Used to Investigate the Evolution of Cellular Structure of Crumb and Crust 153
5.5.1 Microscopy 153
5.5.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 157
5.5.3 X-Ray Microtomography and Synchrotron Radiation Studies 159
5.5.4 Ultrasound 161
5.6 Factors Affecting the Evolution of Cellular Structure of Crust and Crumb 163
5.6.1 The Role of Mixing Conditions 164
5.6.2 The Role of Dough Rheology and Composition 164
5.6.3 Dough Aeration and Mixing 166
5.6.4 The Role of Proving and Baking Conditions 166
5.7 Conclusions 169
References 170
Chapter-6 177
Nondestructive Imaging of Cellular Solid Foods 177
6.1 Introduction 177
6.2 X-Ray Microtomography for Foods 180
6.3 Image Processing and Data Handling 181
6.4 Imaging of Cellular Solid Foods by XMT 184
6.4.1 Biscuits, Cookies and Crackers 189
6.4.2 Extruded Products 192
6.4.2.1 Microstructure of Starch-Based Extruded Solid Foams 192
6.4.2.2 Microstructure of Dietary Fibre Added Extruded Solid Foams 195
6.4.2.3 Microstructure of Protein-Enriched Extruded Solid Foams 200
6.5 Summary and Conclusions 201
References 201
Chapter-7 205
Microstructure of Gluten-Free Baked Products 205
7.1 Introduction 205
7.2 Structural Analysis of Bakery Products 207
7.2.1 Macrostructure of Gluten-Free Bakery Products 208
7.2.2 Image Analysis Process 208
7.2.2.1 Image Acquisition 209
7.2.2.2 Preprocessing 209
7.2.2.3 Image Segmentation 210
7.2.2.4 Object Measurement 211
7.2.2.5 Classification 211
7.2.3 Microstructure of Bakery Products 212
7.3 Celiac Disease and the Role of Gluten in Baked Products 217
7.4 Cereal Sources for Gluten-Free Products 219
7.4.1 Rice Flour 219
7.4.2 Chestnut Flour 221
7.4.3 Sorghum Flour 225
7.4.4 Pseudocereal Flours 228
7.5 Ingredients and Additives Used to Improve the Structure of Gluten-Free Baked Products 230
7.6 Methods to Improve the Microstructure of Gluten-Free Products 239
7.6.1 Sourdough Technology 239
7.6.2 Infrared–Microwave Combination Baking Technology 240
7.6.3 High Hydrostatic Pressure Technology 242
7.7 Conclusion 243
References 244
Chapter-8 251
Molecular Organization and Topographyof Prolamin Protein Films 251
8.1 Introduction 251
8.1.1 Zein and Gluten Proteins 251
8.1.2 Prolamin Proteins as Promising Biodegradable and Edible Packaging Films from Renewable Resources 252
8.1.3 Manufacture and Functionality of Protein Films 253
8.2 Structural Development and Characterization of the Topography of Protein Films Using Imaging Technologies 254
8.3 Characterization of Physical Properties of Protein Films Using Imaging Technologies 259
8.4 Characterization of the Physical Properties of Composite Biofilms by Microstructural Analysis 267
8.5 Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 272
References 273
Chapter-9 276
Assessment of Internal and External Quality of Fruits and Vegetables 276
9.1 Introduction 276
9.2 Computer Vision 277
9.2.1 Size and Shape 278
9.2.2 Surface Texture 281
9.2.3 Surface Colour 281
9.2.4 Surface Defects 282
9.3 Hyperspectral Imaging 282
9.3.1 External Quality 284
9.3.2 Internal Quality 285
9.3.3 Quality Evolution 287
9.3.4 Contaminants 288
9.4 Optical Coherence Tomography 289
9.4.1 Internal Quality 290
9.5 X-Ray Imaging 291
9.5.1 Internal Quality 292
9.6 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 297
9.6.1 Internal Quality 297
References 310
Chapter-10 317
Microstructural Imaging of Chocolate Confectionery 317
10.1 Introduction 317
10.2 Background 317
10.3 Fat Structure–Functionality Relationship 318
10.4 Chocolate Making 320
10.4.1 Ingredient Mixing and Refining 320
10.4.2 Conching 320
10.4.3 Tempering 321
10.4.4 Moulding/Cooling/Storage 321
10.5 Fat Bloom 321
10.6 Mixing Behaviour 322
10.7 Methods to Study the Microstructure of Chocolate 323
10.7.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 323
10.7.2 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy 324
10.7.3 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy 324
10.7.4 Optical Profilometry 325
10.8 The Microstructure of Chocolate 325
10.8.1 Internal Microstructure of Chocolate 326
10.8.2 The Surface Structure of Chocolate 327
10.8.3 Post-processing Changes in Chocolate Microstructure 331
10.8.3.1 Shelf Life of Chocolate 331
10.8.3.2 Temperature Cycling 333
10.8.3.3 Influence of Microstructure of Diffusion of Soft Centre Fillings 334
10.9 Conclusion 337
References 337
Chapter-11 340
Physical-Bioimaging Characterization of Nuts 340
11.1 Introduction 340
11.2 Imaging Recognition of Physical Hazard in Nut Meats 341
11.2.1 Hyperspectral Fluorescent Imaging Analysis of Black Walnuts 341
11.2.2 Hyperspectral Detection Algorithms 343
11.2.3 Typical Classification Results 347
11.2.4 Hyperspectral Algorithm Adaptability to Nuts from Different Growing Regions 348
11.3 Further Readings 353
References 354
Index 355